Pomoxis nigromaculatus

Invasion History

First Non-native North American Tidal Record: 1873
First Non-native West Coast Tidal Record: 1893
First Non-native East/Gulf Coast Tidal Record: 1873

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General Invasion History:

Black Crappie (Pomoxis nigromaculatus) is native on the Atlantic Slope from Virginia or North Carolina south to Florida, and on the Gulf slope west to Texas, and in the interior Great Lakes-St. Lawrence and Mississippi River basins from Quebec to Manitoba south (Page and Burr 1991). The original range on the Atlantic Coastal Plain is uncertain because of extensive introductions and uncertain early records. The Black Crappie was widely introduced by the United States Fish Commission (USFC) starting in 1894 and by state fish commissions. In early stockings, it was usually mixed with White Crappie, and usually recorded as 'crappie' or 'Calico Bass' (Smith and Bean 1898). Shipments and stocking by the USFC continued to 1930s, and has been continued by many state agencies to the present. Black Crappies have been introduced to river systems in 37 states (USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Program 2022), and to France and Germany, where they failed to become established (Lever 1996). They are established on the Atlantic Coast from Chesapeake Bay to Maine and on the West Coast jn the San Francisco Bay, Columbia, and Fraser River estuaries (Carl and Giguet 1972; Cohen and Carlton 1995; USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Program 2022).

North American Invasion History:

Invasion History on the West Coast:

The history of the Black and White Crappies is confused, since the two species were often transported in mixed shipments and/or just treated as 'crappies' (Lampman 1946; Dill and Cordone 1997). The earliest stockings of 'crappies' on the West Coast were a stocking of 285 fish in Lake Washington, Seattle, and a planting of 235 fish, in Lake Cuyamaca, San Diego County in 1891. The Lake Cuyamaca introduction was unsuccessful (Smith 1895; Dill and Cordone 1997). The first successful establishment appears to have been on the Columbia River, probably resulting from a release of Smallmouth Bass (Micropterus dolomieu), mixed with sunfishes and 'crappies', made on the Willamette River, in Salem, Oregon, made by the USFC in 1893. A Black Crappie caught in Columbia Slough, Portland, in 1905, was believed to come from that stocking. In Portland in 1905, a collection of spiny-rayed fishes from the Illinois River was displayed during the Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition, and later released (Lampman 1946). The Black Crappie is well established in the Portland area (Farr and Ward 1992; Van Dyke et al. 2009), and in sloughs of the lower Columbia, near Clatskanie (USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Program 2022).

A large USFC shipment of 'crappies' from Illinois was stocked in many lakes and rivers, including many sites in Sacramento-San Joaquin watershed. Although Black and White Crappies were frequently confused, the consensus is that all of 'Crappies' stocked in central California in 1908 were Black Crappie, and the first White Crappie were probably first introduced in central California in 1951 (Herbold and Moyle (1989, cited by Cohen and Carlton 1995; Dill and Cordone 1997; Moyle 2002). In 1963–1964, Black Crappies were 71% of centrarchids in the tidal freshwater Delta (Turner 1966, cited by Cohen and Carlton 1995). In 1980s–2003, they were less abundant (>1 to 2% of the total catch, Feyrer and Healy 2003; Brown and Michniuk 2007; Grimaldo et al. 2012).

The Black Crappie was first found in Hatzic Lake, near Mission, British Columbia, adjacent to the Fraser River, in 1933, probably transplanted from lakes in the state of Washington (Carl and Giguet 1972). It was rare in the Fraser estuary in surveys in 1972–1973 and 1993–1994 (Richardson et al. 2000).

Invasion History on the East Coast:

The Black Crappie is native to the Atlantic Coastal Plain, but its northern boundary is somewhat uncertain. Jenkins and Burkhead consider P. nigromaculatus to be probably native to the James River, based on Cope's (1869) record, but it also could have been introduced much earlier (Jenkins and Burkhead 1993). It was probably introduced elsewhere in the Chesapeake drainage, based on lack of early records and spotty present distribution. Uhler and Lugger (1876) reported it from Maryland, 'Its precise location in the state is unknown, but, probably in some of the streams emptying into the lower Potomac. It was said to occur near the mouth of the Chester River and sold in the Baltimore markets as "Strawberry Perch".' Jenkins and Burkhead (1993) suggest that these market fish could have come from the Ohio drainage. However P. nigromaculatus had colonized the Delaware by 1873 (Abbott 1877), and perhaps could have reached the upper Bay via the Chesapeake & Delaware canal. First records in major northeastern rivers are: James (1867); York (1949); Rappahannock (1959); Potomac (1894); Susquehanna (1877); Delaware (1873); Hudson (1935); Connecticut (1943); Kennebec (1985), indicating a mix of very early introductions and 20th century state and private releases.

As noted above, the Black Crappie is considered probably native to the James River (Cope 1869; Jenkins and Burkhead 1993). The Black Crappie was abundant in the tidal Pamunkey by 1949, which was the first verified record (Raney and Massmann 1953; Jenkins and Burkhead 1993). The first record in the Rappahannock was in 1959, and it was later abundant in the tidal fresh river (Maurakis et al. 1987). The Black Crappie was stocked in the Potomac by the USFC in 1889–1919 (Worth 1895; Leach 1921), and 'have become very common in places; notably Little River, Four-mile Run and in the river near Seven Locks' (Smith and Bean 1898). It is rare in mainstem of the river; but is found in tributaries (primarily nontidal) to the Wicomico River and St. Clements Bay (Lippson et al. 1979; Ernst et al. 1995). The Black Crappie was stocked in the Susquehanna by the Pennsylvania Fish Commission in 1877. Two fish were caught at Port Deposit, in the tidal river (Bean 1893). This fish was 'said to occur' at the mouth of the Chester River, according to fish merchants (Uhler and Lugger 1876). However, it was not found in early upper Bay surveys (Fowler 1917; Fowler 1933; Hildebrand and Schroeder 1928; Radcliffe and Welsh 1917). The first published catch records for the Upper Bay are for a creel survey in the Northeast River (Elser 1960). This species was caught in the Chesapeake and Delaware canal (Wang 1971) and at the mouth of the Sassafras River (Kauffman et al. 1980). It has also been caught in the Rhode River, but is very rare (Aguilar, personal communication).


In the Delaware River estuary, near Trenton, Abbott reported them as apparently newly arrived in the Delaware Estuary in 1873; 'so it is quite certain that a supply of them has been received from some locality; but how or when I have no knowledge. It may be possible that they could reach the Delaware River through the Delaware and Chesapeake Canal...' (Abbott 1877). Abbott noted the occurrence of other introduced fishes, the Largemouth Bass (Micropterus salmoides) and the Bluegill Sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus), so the Black Crappie could easily have been included in those introductions. The Black Crappie is established in the Delaware River estuary, but appears to be rare (Horwitz 1986; Weisberg et al. 1996). However, Smith (1971) collected 449 fish, mostly in tidal freshwater tributaries, but a few in brackish water up to 6 PSU in Delaware and New Jersey.

The first record of the Black Crappie in the Hudson River system was by Greeley (1935, cited by Mills et al. 1997), who reported it as stocked in the Mohawk drainage by the US Bureau of Fisheries in the early 1900s. The Erie Canal is also a possible vector (Mills et al. 1997). It is considered common in the lower and upper Hudson estuary, as well as the Mohawk River (Daniels et al. 2005). The Black Crappie was introduced to Connecticut in 1942 and was present in the tidal Connecticut River in 1965–1972 (Marcy 1976) and 1988–2002 (Jacobson et al. 2004). This was a popular fish, and widely stocked in ponds and rivers in New England (Hartel 2002; Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Program 2022). It was discovered in Sebago Lake, Maine, in 1952 (Everhart 1966), and found below the dam in Augusta in 1983. It is established in tidal fresh water in Merrymeeting Bay (Kennebec River Council 1999). The Black Crappie was introduced to the Penobscot River basin in 1957 has been found in 7 lakes and ponds, but has not yet been reported from the river (Gallagher and Dill 2010).

Invasion History Elsewhere in the World:

Pomoxis nigromaculatus  (Black Crappie) has been introduced to 37 US states (USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database 2022).  It was introduced to France in 1887, where it reportedly became a pest, and was exported to Germany, but did not persist in Europe (Lever 1996). It was unsuccessfully introduced to Gatun Lake, on the Panama Canal in 1925, but was introduced in several mountain lakes, including Laguna de San Carlos and Mata Ahogad in Panama, and Lake Atitlan, Guatemala (Lever 1996).

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Description

Black Crappie (Pomoxis nigromaculatus) is a medium-sized freshwater fish. Fishes of the genus Centrarchidae (Sunfishes and Black Basses) have a laterally compressed body. They have a spiny and a soft dorsal fin, which are fused. They have 3–8 anal spines, thoracic pelvic fins, and ctenoid scales. Crappies (Pomoxis spp.) have a long predorsal region, with a concave dip over the eye. The mouth is large, with upper jaw extending beneath the eye, and the body is strongly compressed laterally. In the Black Crappie, the length of the dorsal fin base is about equal to the distance from the eye to the dorsal fin origin. There are 7–8 dorsal spines, increasing in length rearward, and 15–16 dorsal rays. The anal fin has 6–7 spines and 17–19 rays. The lateral line is strongly arched and has 34–45 scales. The Black Crappie reaches a length of 490 mm, but more usually 100–300 mm. The color is gray-green above, with silvery-blue sides, marked with wavy black lines, blotches, and iridescent green flecks 6–9 chain-like dusky bars on the side. There are several bands of black blotches on the dorsal, anal, and tail fins (Hardy 1978; Page and Burr 1991; Jenkins and Burkhead 1993; Moyle 2002).

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Taxonomy

Ecology

General:

Black Crappies tolerate a temperature range from 4 to 32.5 °C, and survive under ice-cover in much of their range (Hardy 1978). Most estuarine records are from tidal fresh water, but specimens have been collected at a salinity of 5.9 PSU (Smith 1971). This fish is tolerant of somewhat acidic water, and is common in the Dismal Swamp of Virginia (Jenkins and Burkhead 1993). Black Crappies inhabit lakes, reservoirs, sloughs, ponds, swamps, and backwaters and pools of streams. They are often associated with vegetation and coarse woody debris (Hardy 1978; Wang 1986; Jenkins and Burkhead 1993). Young Black Crappie feed on zooplankton, and in the Delta, mysids and amphipods, while adult fish feed smaller fishes, including juveniles of Threadfin Shad (Dorosoma petenense) and Striped Bass (Morone saxatilis). Predators include other fishes, birds, and humans.

Food:

Fishes, invertebrates, terrestrial insects

Consumers:

Fishes, Birds, Humans

Competitors:

White Crappie, Sunfishes

Trophic Status:

Carnivore

Carn

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Habitats

General Habitat	Fresh (nontidal) Marsh	None
General Habitat	Grass Bed	None
General Habitat	Coarse Woody Debris	None
General Habitat	Swamp	None
General Habitat	Nontidal Freshwater	None
General Habitat	Unstructured Bottom	None
General Habitat	Canals	None
Salinity Range	Limnetic	0-0.5 PSU
Salinity Range	Oligohaline	0.5-5 PSU
Tidal Range	Subtidal	None
Vertical Habitat	Nektonic	None

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Life History

Black Crappie (Pomoxis nigromaculatus) is a medium-sized predatory freshwater fish. In wamer climates, they can mature at one year of age, but more usually, in their second or third year, at 100 to 200 mm length. Spawning takes place early in the season (March to July) at 16–21 °C, in freshwater, on bottoms on gravel, sand, clay, or mud, or under undercut banks. Adult male fish move into shallow water, ~0.3–6 m deep, near shore, and nest in loose colonies. Males excavate shallow nests, often near vegetation, and guard the nesting site against other males, and court females. Females can carry 2700–158,000 eggs. Females may spawn with more than one male, and males may spawn with more than female. Males vigorously guard the eggs through hatching to the postlarval stage. Eggs take 2–3 days to develop at 18.3 °C. The postlarvae swim in schools in shallow, weedy waters (Hardy 1978; Wang 1986; Jenkins and Burkhead 1993; Moyle 2002). Adults in Virginia typically live up to 7 years, but one specimen lived for 13 years (Jenkins and Burkhead 1993).

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Tolerances and Life History Parameters

Minimum Temperature (ºC)	4	Field, Hardy 1978
Maximum Temperature (ºC)	32.5	Field, Hardy 1978
Minimum Salinity (‰)	0	This is a freshwater fish.
Maximum Salinity (‰)	5.9	Field record, Delaware estuary, tidal creek (Smith 1971).
Minimum pH	5.1	This species tolerates acidic water (Jenkins and Burkhead 1993).The given pH was the lower limit for reproduction in an acidified portion of an MI Lake (Eaton et al. 1992).
Minimum Reproductive Salinity	0	This is a freshwater fish.
Minimum Length (mm)	150	Minimum adult length
Maximum Length (mm)	488	None
Broad Temperature Range	None	Cold temperate-Subtropical
Broad Salinity Range	None	Limnetic-Mesohaline

General Impacts

Black Crappie (Pomoxis nigromaculatus) is a capable mid-sized predatory fish, and is also a popular game and food fish (Lampman 1946; Jenkins and Burkhead 1993; Moyle 2002). 

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Regional Impacts

P090	San Francisco Bay		Ecological Impact	Predation
Black Crappies in the Delta feed on mysids as juveniles, and as adults, on juveniles of Threadfin Shad (Dorosoma petenense) and Striped Bass (Morone saxatilis) (Turner 1966, cited by Cohen and Carlton 1995; Moyle 2002).
P090	San Francisco Bay		Economic Impact	Fisheries
Websites indicate that the Black Crappie is a popular sport fish in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta.
P260	Columbia River		Economic Impact	Fisheries
Websites indicate that Black Crappies are an important sport fish in the tidal Columbia River.
CA	California		Ecological Impact	Predation
Black Crappies in the Delta feed on mysids as juveniles, and as adults, on juveniles of Threadfin Shad (Dorosoma petenense) and Striped Bass (Morone saxatilis) (Turner 1966, cited by Cohen and Carlton 1995; Moyle 2002).
CA	California		Economic Impact	Fisheries
Websites indicate that the Black Crappie is a popular sport fish in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta.

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