Invasion
Invasion Description
1st record: St. John/New Brunswick/Bay of Fundy (1861, Ganong 1890)
Geographic Extent
Yarmouth/Nova Scotia/Gulf of Maine (MCZ 215422, Museum of Comparative Zoology 2008; 2008, Choi et al. 2016); Digby /Nova Scotia/Gulf of Maine (1862, Chapman et al. 2007); Digby Neck/Nova Scotia/Whale River, Whale Cove (USNM 664592, US National Museum of Natural History 2007); Digby Neck, Little River/Nova Scotia/Gulf of Maine (MCZ 229414, Museum of Comparative Zoology 2008); Harbourville, 60 Mile NE Of Digby/Nova Scotia/Bay of Fundy (USNM 664593, US National Museum of Natural History 2007); Alma/New Brunswick/Bay of Fundy (USNM 664594, US National Museum of Natural History 2007); Alma/New Brunswick/Bay of Fundy (MCZ 229329, Museum of Comparative Zoology 2008); Nova Scotia/Cumberland Basin/Bay of Fundy (1927, USNM 367955, US National Museum of Natural History 2007); St. John/New Brunswick/Bay of Fundy (Ganong 1890); St. Martins//New Brunswick/Bay of Fundy (USNM 664589, US National Museum of Natural History 2007); St. Martins/New Brunswick/Bay of Fundy (MCZ 229329, Museum of Comparative Zoology 2008); St. Andrews, Kiwanis Picnic Grounds, .5 Mile E Of City//New Brunswick/Passamaquoddy Bay (USNM 664590, US National Museum of Natural History 2007); .5 mi. E. of St. Andrews/New Brunswick/Passamaquoddy Bay (MCZ 229355, Museum of Comparative Zoology 2008); Charlotte Co., Deer Island/New Brunswick/Passamaquoddy Bay (MCZ 192628, Museum of Comparative Zoology 2008); St. Andrews, Indian Point/New Brunswick/Passamaquoddy Bay (MCZ 253258, Museum of Comparative Zoology 2008); Grand Manan Island/New Brunswick/Flaggs cove, Gulf of Maine (1898, USNM 593135, US National Museum of Natural History 2007, Bequaert 1943); Grand Manan, Grand Harbor, Anchorage Beach/New Brunswick/Gulf of Maine (MCZ 176393, Musuem of Comparative Zoology 2008); Cheboque Point, E Of Yarmouth/Nova Scotia/Gulf of Maine (1960, USNM 664587, US National Museum of Natural History 2007); Campobello/ME/Passamaquoddy Bay (USNM 435397, US National Museum of Natural History 2008); Eastport/ME/Passamaquoddy Bay (USNM 435399, US National Museum of Natural History 2007; Pohley 1976); Lubec, W. Quoddy Head, Coast Guard Station/ME/Passamaquoddy Bay (MCZ 343694, Museum of Comparative Zoology 2007); North Trescott, Crowe's Neck/ME/Cobscook Bay (MCZ 249663, Museum of Comparative Zoology 2008); Perry/ME/Cobscook Bay (MCZ 163255, Museum of Comparative Zoology 2008); Roque Bluffs/ME/Englishman Bay (Pohley 1976); ME/Frenchman's Bay (USNM 186072, US National Museum of Natural History 2007); Milbridge, , N of Baldwin Head/ME/Nanaguagus Bay (MCZ 343692, Museum of Comparative Zoology 2008); Bar Harbor/ME/Frenchman's Bay (USNM 435389, US National Museum of Natural History 2007); Swans Island, Fir Point, state ferry pier/ME/Frenchman's Bay (MCZ 343658, Musuem of Comparative Zoology); Bass Harbor, State Ferry Pier/ME/Gulf of Maine (MCZ 343654, Museum of Comparative Zoology 2008); ME/Frenchman's Bay (USNM 186072, US National Museum of Natural History 2008); Trenton, NE of Trenton Bridge, in mudflats/ME/Eastern Bay (MCZ 343651, Museum of Comparative Zoology 2008); Trenton/ME/Blue Hill Bay (1971, MCZ 343657, Museum of Comparative Zoology 2007); Rockland/ME/Penobscot Bay (1912, USNM 435413, US National Museum of Natural History 2007); Isle Au Haut/ME/Penobscot Bay (USNM 435408, US National Museum of Natural History 2007); Vinalhaven Island/ME/Penobscot Bay (MCZ 343693, Museum of Comparative Zoology 2007); Thomaston, 1/2 Mile NE Of City/ME/St. George River (USNM 488283, US National Museum of Natural History 2007); Chamberlain/ME/Muscongus Bay (MCZ 316515, Museum of Comparative Zoology 2008); New Harbor, Pemaquid Point Light/ME/Gulf of Maine (1971, MCZ 343656, Museum of Comparative Zoology 2007); Newagen/ME/Gulf of Maine (1976, Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 2007); Cabbage Island/ME/Linekin Bay (MCZ 223549, Musuem of Comparative Zoology 2008); Boothbay Harbor/ME/Boothbay Harbor (USNM 543175. US National Museum of Natural History 2007); ME/Casco Bay (USNM 224849, US National Museum of Natural History); Saco/ME/Gulf of Maine (1873, Gray 1879, cited by Ganong 1887); Kennebunkport/ME/Gulf of Maine (Ganong 1887); Kennebunkport, Prospect Hill, just east of the mouth of the Kennebunk River/ME/Gulf of Maine (MCZ 343659, Museum of Comparative Zoology 2008); Pine Point/ME/Gulf of Maine (USNM 435419, US National Museum of Natural History 2007); York Beach/ME/Gulf of Maine (MCZ 132925, Museum of Comparative Zoology 2008); Kittery, Sea Point/ME/Gulf of Maine (Museum of Comparative Zoology 2008); 4 miles E of Durham, Cedar Pt./NH/Great Bay (MCZ 199230, Museum of Comparative Zoology 2007); Hampton Beach/NH/Gulf of Maine (MCZ 163256, Museum of Comparative Zoology 2008); Hampton/NH/Gulf of Maine (Ganong 1887); E Gloucester, Brier Neck/MA/Gulf of Maine (MCZ 223545, Museum of Comparaitve Zoology 2008); Ten Pound Island/MA/Gloucester Harbor (1880, USNM 193387, U.S. National Museum of Natural History 2007); Bass Rocks, Gloucester/MA/Massachusetts Bay (MCZ 133168, Museum of Comparative Zoology 2008); Gloucreter/MA/Atlantic Ocean (1878, YPM 15162 , Yale Peaobody Museum 2010); Gloucester/MA/Annisquam River (Massachusetts Bay) (1935, Dexter 1947); Manchester/MA/Massachusetts Bay (USNM 224850, US National Museum of Natural History 2008); West Manchester/MA/Massachusetts Bay (1890, MCZ 223552, Museum of Comparative Zoology 2007); Swampscott/MA/Massachusetts Bay (MCZ 133081, Museum of Comparative Zoology 2008); Lynn/MA/Massachusetts Bay (USNM 714135, US National Museum of Natural History 2008); Beverly/MA/Massachusetts Bay (USNM 590064, US National Museum of Natural History 2007); Revere/MA/Massachusetts Bay (MCZ 223551, Museum of Comparative Zoology 2008); Marblehead, Cliff St., Beach nr. Yacht Club/MA/Massachusetts Bay (MCZ 176459, Musuem of Comparative Zoology 2008); Salem/MA/Massachusetts Bay (USNM 75527, U.S. National Museum of Natural History 2007); Nahant/MA/Massachusetts Bay (USNM 224851, US National Museum of Natural History 2008); Marblehead, Castle Rock/MA/Massachusetts Bay (MCZ 223547, Museum of Comparaitve Zoology 2008); Boston, Castle Island/MA/Boston Harbor (USNM 408698, U.S. National Museum of Natural History 2007); Boston/MA/Boston Harbor (USNM 435404, US National Museum of Natural History 2008); Cohasset/MA/Massachusetts Bay (1914, USNM 450196 U.S. National Museum of Natural History 2007); Marshfield, Brant Rock/MA/Cape Cod Bay (MCZ 182297, Museum of Comparative Zoology 2008); Duxbury/MA/Duxbury Harbor (USNM 435400, US National Museum of Natural History 2008); Plymouth Town Wharf/MA/Plymouth Harbor (2000, MIT Sea Grant 2007); Barnstable/MA/Cape Cod Bay (1875, , Gray 1879, cited by Ganong 1887); Sagamore Beach, Sta. 1838/MA/Cape Cod Bay (MCZ 211047, Museum of Comparative Zoology 2008); Barnstable/MA/Cape Cod Bay (USNM 1034787, US National Musuem of Natural History 2008); Brewster/MA/Cape Cod Bay (USNM 420428, marshy sod); Provincetown/MA/Cape Cod Bay (1872, Gray 1879, cited by Ganong 1887); Cape Cod/MA/Provincetown Harbor (MCZ 182309, Museum of Comparative Zoology 2008)
Vectors
| Level | Vector |
|---|---|
| Probable | Natural Dispersal |
| Alternate | Hull Fouling |
| Alternate | Dry Ballast |
Regional Impacts
| Ecological Impact | Herbivory | |
| Littorina littorea is the most abundant herbivorous intertidal invertebrate on rocky shores in the Gulf of Maine (Bertness et al. 2002; Bertnes et al. 2004). Addition and removal experiments indicated that L. littorea did not graze significantly on the dominant alga, Chondrus crispus, when it was already established, but did affect algal succession by grazing on emphemeral algae (e.g. Ulva, Enteromorpha spp. which compete with Chondrus, damping variation in Chondrus abundance (Lubchenco 1978; Lubchenco and Menge 1978). The periwinkles graze the germlings of the larger brown seaweed Fucus spp., but also benefit Fucus by removing competitive ephemerals and epibiotic algae (Lubchenko 1980; Lubchenco 1983; Lubchenco 1986) Impacts of L. littorea were greatest at sheltered sites (Canoe Beach Cove, Nahant, MA and Grindstone Neck ME), since L. littorea was rare or absent at sites with heavy wave action (Lubchenco and Menge 1978). In the tidal Damariscotta River estuary, heavy grazing by L. littorea limited growth of most algal species,in areas with slow current flow, leading to the domination of Ascophyllum nodosum (Bertness et al. 2002). In marsh environments in the Wells National Estuarine Research Reserve, ME, removal experiments showed that in a stressed site (long inundation, poor drainage), L. littorea reduced the growth of the marsh grass Spartina alterniflora (Smooth Cordgrass), but had no effect at a benign site (Tyrrell et al. 2008). | ||
| Ecological Impact | Habitat Change | |
| Grazing by Littorina littorea helps to benefit canopy-forming seaweeds such as Chondrus crispus spp. and Fucus spp. by removing ephemeral alga competitors. The canopy forming seaweeds provide shelter for many species of intertidal invertebrates (Lubchenco and Menge 1978; Lubchenco 1980; Lubchenco 1983). In marsh environments in the Wells National Estuarine Research Reserve, ME, removal experiments showed that in a stressed site (long inundation, poor drainage), Littorina reduced the growth of the marsh grass Spartina alterniflora (Smooth Cordgrass), but had no effect at a benign site (Tyrrell et al. 2008). Grazing by this introduced snail could reduce the biomass of Spartina at stressed sites, increasing rates of erosion, particularly as a response to sea-level rise (Tyrrell et al. 2008) | ||
| Ecological Impact | Predation | |
| Littorina littorea is a major predator on the egg capsules of the snail Ilyanassa obsoleta (Eastern Mudsnail) in Barnstable Harbor MA (Brenchley 1984). The effect of this predation on abundance of I. obsoleta is not clear. | ||
| Ecological Impact | Competition | |
| In Barnstable Harbor MA, Ilyanassa obsoleta (Eastern Mudsnail) leave areas of mudflat habitat when large numbers of L. littorea are added. This avoidance behavior may be due in part to the tendency of L. littorea to climb onto the shells of I. obsoleta and graze on the shell surface (Brenchley and Carlton 1982). Removal experiments (on Swans Island ME) indicated that growth, weight gain and survival of the native limpet Notoacmea testudinalis was reduced in the presence of L. littorea (Petraitis 1989). | ||
| Ecological Impact | Food/Prey | |
| The high biomasses of L. littorea may have benefited two invading crab species, the Green Crab (Carcinus maenas) and Asian Shore Crab (Hemigrapsus sanguineus). Littorina littorea was a frequent food item for both species (H. s., Gerard et al.1999; C. m., Rops 1989). On the Isles of Shoals ME, L. littorea were a major prey for Jonah Crabs (Cancer borealis), Green Crabs, and Dogwhelks (Nucella lapillus) (Ellis et al. 2007). | ||
| Ecological Impact | Parasite/Predator Vector | |
| The introduction of Littorina littorea to the Northwest Atlantic is believed to have also introduced the digenean trematode Cryptocotyle lingua. Common Periwinkles, collected at 11 sites in the Gulf of Maine, were infected with C. lingua (Pohley et al. 1976; Blakeslee and Byers 2008). The rediae (first parasitic stages) have infected not only L. littorea, but also native populations of L. saxatilis (Rough Periwinkle) and L. obtusata (Smooth Periwinkle) (Pohley 1976; Blakeslee and Byers 2008; Blakeslee et al. 2008). The trematodes cause extensive damage to the host's digestive and reproductive systems (Wood et al. 2009). The rediae of C. lingua metamorphose into cercariae, which have a swimming tail and infect fishes (Stunkard 1930; Sindermann et al. 1962). When infected fish are eaten by birds or mammals, the metacercariae grow in the final host's digestive tract and and reproduce (Stunkard 1930; Sindermann et al. 1962). Thus, the introduction of the Common Periwinkle has added a new parasite to 3 trophic levels. | ||