Spirobranchus polytrema

Overview

Scientific Name: Spirobranchus polytrema

Phylum: Annelida

Class: Polychaeta

Order: Sabellida

Family: Serpulidae

Genus: Spirobranchus

Species:

polytrema [Describe here as A. iricolor]

Native Distribution

Origin Realm:

Temperate Northern Atlantic, Central Indo-Pacific, Western Indo-Pacific, Temperate Northern Pacific

Native Region:

Origin Location:

Temperate Northern Atlantic Aegean Sea, Northern Cyprus (Çinar 2013) STATED as not alien Aegean Sea, Levantine Sea (Çinar et al. 2014) STATED as not alien Mediterranean (Inglis et al. 2008) Type locality Northern Cyprus (Çinar 2005) STATUS NOT STATED, but not a new record Southern Adriatic coast (Giangrande et al. 2004) STATUS NOT STATED Ionian Sea (Zenetos et al. 1996) STATUS NOT STATED Corsica Channel, Western Mediterranean (Aliani & Meloni 1999) STATUS NOT STATED Grotta di Ciolo marine cave (39º50'38"N 18º23'11"E), near Capo di Leuca, southern Apulia, south-eastern Italy, central Mediterranean (Denitto & Licciano 2006) STATUS NOT STATED Thessaloniki Bay, Perea, Neoi Epivates, Agia Triada, north Aegean Sea (Damiandis & Chintiroglou 2000) STATUS NOT STATED Ibiza, Mediterranean Sea (Bick 2006) STATUS NOT STATED Cape Romito, Leghorn, Italy (Giangrande 1988) STATUS NOT STATED Mallorca Island, western Mediterranean (Box et al. 2010) STATUS NOT STATED Santa Clara tunnel, São Miguel island, Azores (Micael et al. 2006) STATUS NOT STATED Temperate Northern Pacific Japan (Inglis et al. 2008) STATUS NOT STATED [Japan] Toga and off the coast of Oga Peninsula, Japan Sea side, Japan Sea side. (Imajima 1984) STATUS NOT STATED [Spirobranchus cf. polytrema] [Japan] Off Oshima Island, Izu Islands. (Imajima 1978) STATUS NOT STATED [Spirobranchus cf. polytrema] [Japan] Around Cape Shionomisaki, Kii Peninsula. (Imajima 1979) STATUS NOT STATED [Spirobranchus cf. polytrema] [Japan] Tsurihama, Miyanohama, Minami-fukurozawa (Imajima 1977) STATUS NOT STATED Western Indo-Pacific Sri Lanka, Indo-West Pacific (Inglis et al. 2008) STATUS NOT STATED Hare Island, Gulf of Mannar, India (James et al. 1969) STATUS NOT STATED [Spirobranchus cf. polytrema] Indo-West Pacific, Sri Lanka. (Imajima 1977, Imajima 1987, Harry et al. 2012) STATUS NOT STATED Central Indo-Pacific Northern District, Guam (Bailey-Brock & Krause 2007) STATUS NOT STATED Lorde Howe Island and Soloman Islands, Australia (Inglis et al. 2008) STATUS NOT STATED [Solomon Islands] Makambo, Anuha Island, Kesao, Nuhu, and Guadalcanal. (Imajima & ten Hove 1986) STATUS NOT STATED [Spirobranchus cf. polytrema] [Hong Kong] Sharp Island. (Harry et al. 2012) STATUS NOT STATED [Japan] Sakaiura in Chichi-jima, Ani-jima and Nishi-jima, Ogawawara Islands (Imajima 1977) STATUS NOT STATED [Spirobranchus cf. polytrema] [Japan] Around Sesoko Island and Kunrihama in the island and Bise in Okinawa Island. (Imajima 1987) STATUS NOT STATED Eastern Indo-Pacific [Republic of Kiribati] Abatiku, Biki, Abemama in Gilbert Islands. (Imajima & ten Hove 1986) STATUS NOT STATED Uncertain realm Australia (Inglis et al. 2008) STATUS NOT STATED

Geographic Range:

2.5 8.5,79.3000030517578 40.6000022888184 (OBIS 2016) Cape Romito, Leghorn, Italy (Giangrande 1988) to Northern Cyprus (Çinar 2005; Çinar 2013) Japan to Lorde Howe Island (Inglis et al. 2008) Hare Island, Gulf of Mannar, India (James et al. 1969) to Sri Lanka (Inglis et al. 2008) Santa Clara tunnel, São Miguel island, Azores (Micael et al. 2006) [Japan] Off the coast of Oga Peniusula, Japan Sea side: 39°48.9N, 139°56.2'E, 39°49.9N, 139°53.3'E, 39°47.2N, 139°52.8'E. (Imajima 1984) [Spirobranchus cf. polytrema] [Japan] Off Oshima Island, Izu Islands: 34°42.5N, 139°27.6'E. (Imajima 1996) Around Cape Shionomisaki, Kii Peninsula: 33°26.4N, 135°44.3'E, 33°26.3N, 135°44.9'E, 33°26.8N, 135°48.6'E. (Imajima 1996) [Hong Kong] Sharp Island: 22°21'N, 114°17'E. (Harry et al. 2012)

General Diversity:

NF

Non-native Distribution

Invasion History:

CONFLICT No records of invasion (Global Invasive Species Database 2016) Yes (see inv_propens) Yes (Inglis et al. 2005)

Non-native Region:

Southern Australia and New Zealand

Invasion Propens:

Temperate Australasia New Zealand: ports of Dunedin, Lyttelton, Napier, Wellington, Timaru, and Port of Picton (Inglis et al. 2008, 2008b) *Non-indigenous Wellington, Nepier, and Dunedin Haobour. (Inglis et al. 2005) *Non-indigenous

Status Date Non-native:

Port of Picton, New Zealand: November 2001 (Inglis et al. 2008) Port of Wellington, New Zealand: November 2001 (Inglis et al. 2008b) Dunedin Houbour: First detection of S. p. is November 2001. (Inglis et al. 2005)

Vectors and Spread

Initial Vector:

Hull fouling (not specified), Other, See details

Second Vector:

NF

Vector Details:

Probable means of introduction: hull fouling (Inglis et al. 2008) [Corsica Channel] Larvae may settle on plants or plastic debris in the water column, which serve as rafts for dispersal over long periods (Aliani & Meloni 1999) Introduction vector: juveniles and adults found on floating debris (Aliani & Molcard 2003) Approximately 83 % (15 of 18 species) of NIS in the Port of Dunedin are likely to have been introduced in hull fouling assemblages. (Inglis et al. 2005) RELATED: [Spirobranchus tetraceros] [Alexandria, Egypt] Introduction vector: may spread as fouling on ship hulls or as via free planktonic larvae (Selim et al. 2005) *Interpreted as broadcast spawning

Spread Rate:

Though Spread rate is unknown, it is known that the species has been distributed to ports of Wellington and Napier, too. (Inglis et al. 2005)

Date First Observed in Japan:

NF

Date First Observed on West coast North America:

NF

Impacts

Impact in Japan:

NF

Global Impact:

Not known (Inlgis et al. 2005)

Tolerences

Native Temperature Regime:

Mild temperate, Warm temperate, Subtropical, Tropical, See details

Native Temperature Range:

[Aegean Sea, eastern Mediterranean] Present on a temperate cliff (Antoniadou et al. 2010) [Japan] Off the coast of Oga Peninsula: 25ºC in summer and 7ºC in winter. (Imajima 1984) [Japan] Around Oshima Island, Izu Islands: sea-surface temperature range is 15-28ºC. (Imajima 1978) [Japan] Around Cape Shionomisaki, Kii Peninsula: mean sea-surface temperature is usually 27ºC. (Imajima 1979) [Japan] Ogasawara Islands: 19.9-28.2ºC (mean temperature 23.5ºC). (Imajima 1977) VARIABILITY [Hong Kong] Victoria Harbour: Average temperature is 18.6 - 27.5 ºC at bottom water. (Morton 1984) Hong Kong: max 28.5ºC in summer and min 18.1ºC in winter. (Clark et al. 2003) Mild temperate, warm temperate, subtropical, tropical (M. Otani, pers. comm.)

Non-native Temperature Regime:

Cool temperate, See details

Non-native Temperature Range:

[Port of Wellington, western Port Nicholson, New Zealand] 10.5 to 18.5 ºC seasonal range in mean monthly sea surface temperatures (Inglis et al. 2008b) Cool temperate (M. Otani, pers. comm.)

Native Salinity Regime:

Polyhaline, Euhaline

Native Salinity Range:

Ogasawara Islands: Chlorinity is 19.22‰ (after conversion to salinity: 34.7psu). (Imajima 1977) VARIABILITY [Hong Kong] Victoria Harbbour: Average salinity is 24.9 - 30.6 psu at the bottom water. (Morton 1984) Hong Kong: max 34.0psu in dry period and min 10.0psu in wet period. (Clark et al. 2003)

Non-native Salinity Regime:

NF

Temperature Regime Survival:

Mild temperate, Warm temperate, Subtropical, Tropical, See details

Temperature Range Survival:

13.644 - 19.102 ºC (OBIS 2016) [Mallorca Island, Mediterranean] Sampled when water temperature was approximately 22.5ºC (Box et al. 2010) *Note: temperature read from line on figure 2 (as opposed to the bar graph in the same figure) for June Mild temperate, Warm temperate, Subtropical, Tropical (M. Otani, pers. comm.)

Temperature Regime Reproduction:

Mild temperate, Warm temperate, Subtropical, Tropical, See details

Temperature Range Reproduction:

Mild temperate, Warm temperate, Subtropical, Tropical (M. Otani, pers. comm.)

Salinity Regime Survival:

Polyhaline, Euhaline

Salinity Range Survival:

37.662 - 38.757 PPS (OBIS 2016) Polyhaline, Euhaline (M. Otani, pers. Comm.)

Salintiy Regime Reproduction:

Polyhaline, Euhaline

Salinity Range Reproduction:

Polyhaline, Euhaline (M. Otani, pers. Comm.)

Depth Regime:

Lower intertidal, Shallow subtidal, Deep subtidal, Bathyal, Abyssal, See details

Depth Range:

Sampled from 0 - 2,872 (OBIS 2016) [Northern Cyprus] 0 - 150 m (Çinar 2005) [Aegean Sea, Levantine Sea] 0 - 50 m depth (Çinar et al. 2014) Underside of low-water zone stones. Lives in the intertidal, sublittoral habitats, and along the continental shelf (Australian Faunal Directory 2005, cited in Inglis et al. 2008) [Milos Island, Aegean Sea] Collected from 2 - 80 m depth (Bianchi & Morri 2000) [Ibiza, Mediterranean Sea] Sampled from 1 - 5 m (Bick 2006) [Cape Romito, Italy] Surface to ~ 2 m depth; "superficial infralittoral zone" (Giangrande 1988) [Aegean Sea] Sampled from cement and ceramic panels, which were deployed at 25 - 30 m depth (Antoniadou et al. 2010) [Japan] Off the coast of Oga Peninsula, Japan Sea side: 21-53 m. (Imajima 1984) RELATED: [Spirobarnchus spinosus] Often found in the subtidal zone, sometimes found in the intertidal (Carlton 2007) [Spirobranchus cf. polytrema] [Japan] Off Oshima Island, Izu Islands: 23-65 m. (Imajima 1978) [Spirobranchus cf. polytrema] [Japan] Around Cape Shionomisaki: 45-75 m. (Imajima 1979) [Spirobranchus cf. polytrema] [Japan] Ogasawara Islands: Intertidal zone. (Imajima 1996) [Spirobranchus cf. polytrema] [Japan] Aound Sesoko Island: 8 m. (Imajima 1984) [Spirobranchus cf. polytrema] [Japan] Kunrihama in Sesoko Island and Bise in Okinawa Island: intertidal zone of the reef flat. (Imajima 1987)

Non-native Salinity Range:

Native Abundance:

Abundant, Common, Few, See details

Reproduction

Fertilization Mode:

external

Reproduction Mode:

Gonochoristic/ dioecious

Spawning Type:

Broadcast

Development Mode:

Planktotrophic planktonic larva (feeding)

Asexual Reproduction:

Does not reproduce asexually

Reproduction Details:

[Corsica Channel] Release trochophores, which have weak swimming ability. These trochophores become metatrochophores in the water column, which feed in the plankton and survive up to 8 weeks (Aliani & Meloni 1999). Larval duration and survival depend on temperature, salinity, and food availability (Bianchi 1981, cited in Aliani & Meloni 1999) RELATED: [Serpulid species including Spirobranchus cariniferus] [North Island, New Zealand] Extended spawning season (Gosselin & Sewell 2013) [Spirobranchus cariniferus] [North Island, New Zealand] Gonochoristic or possibly simultaneous hermaphrodites with sperm and oocytes released on different dates (Gosselin & Sewell 2013) [Spirobranchus tetraceros] [Alexandria, Egypt] Spawns; oocytes are shed; sperm are likely ect-aquasperm, which are externally fertilizing sperms (*Note: interpreted as broadcast spawning). Separate sexes. Semi-continuous iteroparous breeding, where there is a prolonged breeding season because gametes are produced in small batches at intervals (Selim et al. 2005) [Spirobranchus tetraceros] Feeding planktonic larvae (Kupriyanova et al. 2001, cited in Selim et al. 2005) [Spirobranchus corniculatus] Broadcast spawning (Kupriyanova et al. 2001, cited in Selim et al. 2005) [Spirobranchus polycerus] [Barbados] Two morphotypes: one is a simultaneous hermaphrodite, the other is gonochoric. Eggs are spawned (Marsden 1992) [Spirobranchus giganteus] Free spawning type and the larvae are planktorophic. (Kupriyanova et al. 2001) [Family Serpulidae] Planktonic stage lasts from 6 days to 2 months (ten Hove 1974, 1979, cited in Thorp et al. 1987) [Family Serpulidae] Hermaphrodites (Gosselin & Sewell 2013) [Hydroides ezoensis] Free-cast spawner; planktonic larvae (Lee II & Reusser 2012) [Hydroides ezoensis] Development type: planktonic (Byers et al. 2015) [Hydroides ezoensis] Planktonic larvae (Miura & Kajihara 1981) [Hydroides ezoensis] Planktonic phase lasts no more than 5 days from hatching to settling (Hong 1980, cited in Zvyaginstev et al. 2004) [Hydroides ezoensis] Males and females (Okamoto et al. 1994) [Hydroides ezoensis] Free-spawning; planktotrophic larvae (Kupriyanova et al. 2001) [Class Polychaeta] Asexual reproduction is linked to regeneration capacity, which is restricted in polychaetes (Ansell et al. 1997) [Serpulidae] The sexes were traditionally considered to be almost exclusively separate in the Serpulidae. (Kupriyanova et al. 2001)

Adult Mobility:

See details

Adult Mobility Details:

Sessile (Micael et al. 2006) Vagile (Antoniadou et al. 2010) RELATED: [Hydroides ezoensis] Non-motile (Lee II & Reusser 2012) [Hydroides ezoensis] Sessile (Byers et al. 2015) [Serpulidae] Serpulidae builds calcareous tube which firmly attaches to the substrate, and lives there. (Yamada 1967)

Maturity Size:

RELATED: [Spirobranchus cariniferus] The smallest observed worm was 1.5 cm, which was mature and released gametes. S. cariniferus grows to approximately 4 cm in length (Gosselin & Sewell 2013)

Maturity Age:

RELATED: [Spirobranchus cariniferus] Competence reached 13 - 15 days post fertilization (Gosselin & Sewell 2013)

Reproduction Lifespan:

[Serpulidae] Serpulids spawn more or less continuously during an extended reproductive season. (Kupriyanova et al. 2001) [Serpulidae] Spawning season of several species of Spirobranchus is as follows. S. giganteus in Puerto Rico: from March through October. (Allen 1957) [S. polycerus] [West Indies] During the summer months (Lewis 1960, Marsden 1960, cited in Kupriyanova et al. 2001) but ripe gametes in the species from mid-October to late May in Barbados (Lacalli 1976, cited in Kupuriyanova et al. 2001). [S. corniculatus] the greatest proportion of ripe adults was found in summer between October and January in Australia. (Smith 1984, cited in Kupuriyanova et al. 2001).

Longevity:

RELATED: [Spirobranchus polycerus] 10-12 years. (Fox 1963, Marsden 1994, cited in Kupriyanova et al. 2001) [Spirobranchus giganteus] It lived more than 10 years and a few had lived more than 40 years. (Nishi & Nishihira 1996) [Spirobranchus corniculatus] Longevity is 15-20 years. (Nishi & Nishihira 1995)

Broods per Year:

NF

Reproduction Cues:

RELATED: [Spirobranchus cariniferus] Worms kept cool and moist after collection, then removed from tubes and immersed in warm (19ºC) seawater to stimulate spawning. 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine (IBMX) induces metamorphasis (Gosselin & Sewell 2013) [Hydroides ezoensis] Removal from tubes and dipping into filtered seawater (both males and females) induced the release of gametes (Okamoto et al. 1994) [Polychaeta] Spawning is influenced by environmental factors such as temperature, day length and lunar cycles. (Clark 1979, cited in Kupriyanova et al. 2001) [Serpulidae] Among above mentioned factors, temperature seems to be one of the major exogenous factors controlling the timing of reproduction of serpulids because the peaks of the reproductive seasons generally coincide with warmer months. (Kupriyanova et al. 2001) [Serpulidae] Serpulids apparently synchronise gamete release with their closest neighbours and pheromones probably co-ordinate gamete release. (Hardege & Bentley 1997, Hardege et al. 1998, cited in Kupriyanova et al. 2001)

Reproduction Time:

RELATED: [Serpulid species including Spirobranchus cariniferus] [North Island, New Zealand] Extended spawning season. 75 - 100 % of individuals carry ripe gametes between late spring to early autumn (Gosselin & Sewell 2013) [Spirobranchus tetraceros] [Alexandria, Egypt] Spawning began in late May/early June and continued until October (Selim et al. 2005) [Family Serpulidae] Continuous reproduction by individuals results in an extended reproductive season (Gosselin & Sewell 2013) [Serpulidae] Serpulids spawn more or less continuously during an extended reproductive season. (Kupriyanova et al. 2001) Spawning season of several species of Spirobranchus is as follows. [Spirobranchus giganteus] [Puerto Rico] Spawning season from March through October. (Allen 1957) [Spirobranchus polycerus] [West Indies] Spawning season during the summer months (Lewis 1960, Marsden 1960, cited in Kupriyanova et al. 2001) but ripe gametes in the species from mid-October to late May in Barbados (Lacalli 1976, cited in Kupuriyanova et al. 2001). [Spirobranchus corniculatus] the greatest proportion of ripe adults was found in summer between October and January in Australia. (Smith 1984, cited in Kupuriyanova et al. 2001)

Fecundity:

RELATED: [Spirobranchus cariniferus] [New Zealand] Females that spawned between November to early April each released several hundred or a few thousand oocytes, while those that spawned in mid or late April only release approximately 10 to 50 oocytes (Gosselin & Sewell 2013)

Egg Size:

RELATED: [Spirobranchus tetraceros] [Alexandria, Egypt] Mature oocyte maximum diameter was 78 µm (Selim et al. 2005) [Spirobranchus giganteus] 83 µm in diameter. (Smith 1984, cited in Kupriyanova et al. 2001) [Spirobranchus giganteus] Approximately 80-85 µm in diameter. (Allen 1957) [Family Serpulidae] Mature egg diameter ranges from 45 - 200 µm (Kupriyanova et al. 2001, cited in Selim et al. 2005)

Egg Duration:

[Spirobranchus] The time that fertilised eggs undergo cleavage up to the blastula stage is various according to the temperature such as after 1-1.5 h at 20-25ºC, 2.5 h at 15ºC, and 4 h at 10-11ºC . (Several authors cited in Kupriyanova et al. 2001)

Early Life Growth Rate:

[Corsica Channel] Metatrochophores feed in the water column and survive up to 8 weeks (Aliani & Meloni 1999). Larval duration and survival depend on temperature, salinity, and food availability (Bianchi 1981, cited in Aliani & Meloni 1999) RELATED: [Spirobranchus cariniferus] Growth rate varied with diet, but grew to approximately 300 - 350 mm body length by 10 days post fertilization. Most larvae metamorphosed on days 13 and 15 post fertilization (Gosselin & Sewell 2013) [Spirobranchus corniculatus] It takes 10 days to reach the metamorphic size of 500 µm. (Smith 1984, 1985, cited in Kupriyanova et al. 2001)

Adult Growth Rate:

NF

Population Growth Rate:

NF

Population Variablity:

NF

Habitat

Ecosystem:

Sediment subtidal, SAV, Rocky intertidal, Rocky subtidal, Coral reef, Mussel reef, Coralline algae, Fouling, Flotsam, Other

Habitat Type:

Epibenthic, Epiphytic, Epizoic, Under rock, Other

Substrate:

Mud, Mixed fine sediments, Gravel, Cobble, Rock, Biogenic, Artificial substrate, See details

Exposure:

Exposed, Semi-exposed, Protected

Habitat Expansion:

NF

Habitat Details:

[Guam] Sampled from fine sand with Halimeda debris (Bailey-Brock & Krause 2007) [Northern Cyprus] Found on hard substratum, rocks, the sponge Sarcotragus sp., the phanerogame Posidonia oceanica, and soft sediments including mud, muddy sand, sandy mud, and shell fragments. 0 - 150 m (Çinar 2005) Found in Posidonia oceanica meadows (Çinar 2013) [Aegean Sea, Levantine Sea] Hard substratum and soft substratum (Çinar et al. 2014) Tubeworm; found on the underside of low-water zone stones. Lives in the intertidal, on rock bottoms, sublittoral habitats, and along the continental shelf (Australian Faunal Directory 2005, cited in Inglis et al. 2008, 2008b) Scraped from port piles (Inglis et al. 2008) *port, so entered as protected [Corsica Channel] Larvae may settle on plants or plastic debris in the water column, which serve as rafts for dispersal over long periods (Aliani & Meloni 1999) [Milos Island, Aegean Sea] Found near hydrothermal vents on a variety of substrata, including algae (Cystoseira, Sargassum, Corallina, Lobophora), coralline alga Mesophyllum, ascidians (Microcosmus sabatieri, Halocynthia papillosa), bryozoan colonies, corals, shells, and a flotation buoy and other oceanographic instruments (Bianchi & Morri 2000) [Grotta di Ciolo] Collected from clay test panels (Denitto & Licciano 2006) [Thessaloniki Bay] In an assemblage with Mytilus galloprovincialis (Damiandis & Chintiroglou 2000) [Ibiza, Mediterranean Sea] Found on shells inhabited by the hermit crabs Clibanarius erythropus and C. tubularis, the whelk Stramonita haemastoma, in addition to being found on empty shells, pebbles, hard substrata, and in photophilic algal polychaete assemblages (Bick 2006) [Mediterranean Sea] Found on both natural and artificial substrata. Natural substrata in clude calcareous alagae, the coral Cladocora caespitosa, the and the sponge Sarcotragus muscarum (Bick 2006) [Mediterranean Sea] Juveniles and adults found on floating debris (flotsam; Aliani & Molcard 2003) [Santa Clara tunnel, São Miguel island] Found on the ceiling and walls of the entrance, twilight zone, and the dark zone of the tunnel (Micael et al. 2006) [Cape Romito, Italy] Found from the surface to 2 m depth among photophilic algae including Corallina elongata, Jania rubens, and Laurencia obtusa (Giangrande 1988) [Mallorca Island, Mediterranean] Found in Caulerpa racemosa and in Posidonia oceanica meadows(Box et al. 2010) [Japan] Toga in Oga Peninsula: Collected as fouling organisms on the mussel cage hanged from the raft. (Imajima 1984) [Australia] S. p. is most commonly found along the continental shelf, intertidal, rock bottom, and sublittoral habitats, and on the underside of stones around the low water mark. (Australian Faunal Directory 2005, cited in Inlgis et al. 2005) Substrate: gravel, cobble (M. Otani, pers. comm.) RELATED: [Spirobarnchus spinosus] Often found in the subtidal zone on hard substrates in massed tubes; sometimes found alone in the intertidal (Carlton 2007) [Spirobranchus polycerus] [Barbados] On coral (Marsden 1992) [Spirobranchus cf. polytrema] [Japan] Ogawawara Islands: Collected from underside of corals on reef. (Imajima 1977) [Spirobranchus cf. polytrema] [Japan] Kunrihama in Sesoko Island and Bise in Okinawa Island: Collected from underside of corals on the reef flat. (Imajima 1987) [Spirobranchus cf. polytrema] [Hong Kong] Found on dead coral skeltons at 3-6 m depth. (Harry et al. 2012) [Family Serpulidae] Builds a calcareous tube (Kozloff 1990)

Trophic Level:

Suspension feeder

Trophic Details:

Filter feeder (Giangrande et al. 2004) RELATED: [Family Serpulidae] Feeds by using long laterofrontal cilia to circulate water and knock prospective food particles to its short frontal cilia, where it gets trapped in mucus before being brought to its mouth (Kozloff 1990) [Family Serpulidae] Filter-feeders (Bianchi & Morri 2000) [Family Serpulidae] Filter feeders (Gosselin & Sewell 2013) [Serpulidae] Normally unicellular planktonic algae serve as food for both serpulid larvae and adults. (Kupriyanova et al. 2001) [Hydroides ezoensis] Suspension feeder (Lee II & Reusser 2012)

Forage Mode:

Generalist

Forage Details:

RELATED: [Serpulidae] Normally unicellular planktonic algae serve as food for both serpulid larvae and adults. (Kupriyanova et al. 2001)

Natural Control:

RELATED: PREDATION [Predation] [Serpulidae] Suction-feeding bevalves are capable of catching serpulid larvae (Cowden et al. 1984, cited in Kupriyanova et al. 2001) and gastropod molluscs are the most commonly reported predators on juvenile and adult serpulids (Moran et al. 1984 and etc., cited in Kupriyanova et al. 2001). [Predation] [Serpulidae] Other reported predator of serpulids include crabs, fishes, Asteroidea, and Echinoidea, although, as described by ten Hove (1979) (cited in Kupriyaova), predation by fishes generally only affects the (extended) branchial crowns (Many aouthors, cited in Kupriyanova et al. 2001).

Associated Species:

RELATED: PARASITE [Spirobranchus cariniferus] [Parasite] [Otago Harbour, New Zealand] Hosts an apicomplexan gregarine parasite (Peoples et al. 2011, cited in Gosselin & Sewell 2013) PARASITES AND/OR COMMENSALS [Parasites and/or commensals] [Serpulids] There is no overview of parasites and/or commensals occurring in or oN serpulids. (Kupriyanova et al. 2001) [Parasites and/or commensals] [S. corniculatus] Yielded two different genera of ectoparasitic copepods, suggestive either of different microniches or of different food sources utilised by the copepods. (Stock 1955, cf. Gotto 1979, cited in Kupriyanova et al. 2001) [Parasites and/or commensals] [Serpulids including S. giganteus] Lichomolgidae of which a number of taxa are associated with various serpulids including S. giganteus. (Humes & Stock 1973, cited in Kupriyanova et al. 2001)

References and Notes

References:

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Literature:

Limited information; expert opinion based on observational information or circumstantial evidence

Notes:

Synonymy between Mediterranean and Indo-Pacific forms is uncertain (Inglis et al. 2008) Suspected to be a species complex (Bianchi & Morri 2000)