Schizoporella japonica

Overview

Scientific Name: Schizoporella japonica

Phylum: Bryozoa

Class: Gymnolaemata

Order: Cheilostomatida

Family: Schizoporellidae

Genus: Schizoporella

Species:

japonica (raised to species level from Schizoporella unicornis var. japonica(Dick et al 2005; Oka 1929 and Ortmann 1890, cited in NEMESIS 2016) [Describe here as A. iricolor]

Native Distribution

Origin Realm:

Temperate Northern Pacific, Central Indo-Pacific

Native Region:

Origin Location:

CONFLICT: Central Indo-Pacific Temperate Northern Pacific [Japan] Sagami Bay; Sea of Japan; Akkeshi Bay (NEMESIS 2016; Carlton 2007; Hayami 1975; Grischenko and Zvyagintsev 2012; Grischenko et al 2007) STATUS STATED [Japan] Off Yunoshima and off Akemae in Mutsu Bay. (Okada 1929) STATUS NOT STATED [Japan] Akkeshi, Muroran, Shirikisinai on the Pacific side (Mawatari & Mawatari 1981) and at Oshoro Bay on the Sea of Japan in Hokkaido. (Kubota & Mawatari 1985) STATUS NOT STATED [China] native to Northwest Pacific, from China to northern Japan (NEMESIS 2016; Liu et al 2001, cited in Dick et al 2005) STATUS STATED [S. unicornis (Synonymized taxon)] Extends from China (Liu et al. 2001, cited in Grischenko et al. 2007) northward to Hokkaido Island. (Grischenko et al. 2007) STATUS NOT STATED Central Indo-Pacific [Malaysia] Langkawi. (Taylor & Tan 2015) STATUS NOT STATED [China] Hong Kong (as S. unicornis (Synonymized taxon)). (Huang & Li 1990) STATUS NOT STATED Note: [Schizoporella unicornis (synonymised species)] Extent of its native and introduced ranges is uncertain because of confusion with S. unicornis; S. errata, and other Schizoporella species (NEMESIS 2016) Note: So far S. unicornis (synonymised species) has been considered to have a wide range of the distribution along the coast of Japan (e. g. Mawatari 1992). However, it is necessary to review Japanese records of the species because there may be a taxonomic confusion with S. japonicus and other related species. This means that it cannot be described about the distribution of the species in Japan other than Mutsu Bay and Hokkaido. STATUS NOT STATED

Geographic Range:

Worldwide distribution (Harbo 2011) [Western Pacific] China to northern Japan; Malaysia; Australia; New Zealand (Dick et al. 2005; NEMESIS 2016; Davidson et al 2014; Grischenko et al 2007; Roy et al 2015; Hayami 1975; Bock 2015; Taylor and Tan 2015) [Japan] Kajima Island in Uchiura (Hunka) Bay: 43°02.33'N, 144°51.44'E (Grischenko et al. 2007) [Japan] Barasan Cape in Uchiura (Hunka) Bay: 43°01.45'N, 144°50.21'E. (Grischenko et al. 2007) [Malaysia] Kuah jetty, Langkawi: 6°18'N, 99°51'E (Taylor & Tan 2015) [Eastern Pacific] Alaska; British Columbia, Canada to California; South America (Harbo 2011; Ashton et al 2014; Dick et al 2015; NEMESIS 2016; Bishop et al 2015b; Hayami 1975) [Eastern Atlantic] Norway; UK (Bishop et al 2015a; NEMESIS 2016; Collin et al 2015; Porter et al 2015) [Mediterranean Sea] (Harbo 2011) RELATED: Actual range may be much more extensive, could have been introduced to several parts of the world (Dick et al 2005; Grischenko et al 2007)

General Diversity:

[Schizoporella unicornis (synonymised species)] Dick et al. (2005) re-examined Schizoporella spp. from Ketchikan, Alaska and both sides of the Pacific, and have raised Ortmann's S. unicornis var. japonica to the status of a distinct species, noting differences between this for and British S. unicornis, and similarities between the Japanese type specimen and Alaskan Schizoporella, as well as specimens collected from Smithsonian Environmental Research fouling plates from Puget Sound and San Francisco (Dick et al 2005; NEMESIS 2016) Many previous records of Schizoporella unicornis (Johnston 1844) from the northern Pacific Ocean are likely attributable to S. japonica (Dick et al 2005)

Non-native Distribution

Invasion History:

Yes, see inv_propens

Non-native Region:

Northeast Pacific, Northeast Atlantic, Central Indo-Pacific, Southern Australia and New Zealand

Invasion Propens:

CONFLICT: Central Indo-Pacific Temperate Northern Pacific [Canada] Strait of Georgia, BC; Vancouver Island to Puget Sound and Willapa Bay (Crawford and Irvine 2011; Clarke Murray et al 2011; Clarke Murray et al 2014; DFO 2015; Dick et al 2005; Irvine and Crawford 2011; McDaniel and Swanston 2013; Powell 1970, cited in NEMESIS 2016; Dick et al 2005) *Introduced/ Non-indigenous [US] Alaska; Grays Harbor, Washington; Coos Bay, Oregon; Humboldt Bay; Fort Bragg Harbor, Bodega Harbor, Tomales Bay, Elkhorn Slough, Monterey Bay and Morro Bay; San Francisco Bay (Ashton et al 2014; Irvine and Crawford 2011; Ruiz et al 2006; NEMESIS 2016; Davidson et al 2014; Elahi et al 2013, 2014; Needles and Wendt 2013; Treibergs 2012) *Introduced It was found in Alaska, from Ketchikan (in 2001, Ruiz et al., 2006, cited in NEMESIS, Dick et al. 2005), Sitka (in 2001, Ruiz et al. 2006, cited in NEMESIS), and Valdez and Tatilek, Prince William Sound (in 1998, Hines and Ruiz 2000, cited in NEMESIS). *Introduced [The Pacific Coast of North America] First record of the US West Coast is from Samish Bay, Puget Sound (McCain and Ross 1974 etc., cited in NEMESIS 2016) *Introduced [Records of S. j. along the West Coast of N. America after the first record are as follows] Central Vancouver Island to Puget Sound and Willapa Bay. (Powell 1970, cited in NEMESIS 2016) *Introduced It was found in other coastal bays, including Grays Harbor, Washington (McCain and Ross 1974, cited by Carlton 1979 from NEMESIS), Coos Bay, Oregon (in 1986, Carlton 1989, cited in NEMESIS), and Humboldt Bay (in 1992, Barnhart et al. 1992, cited by Boyd et al. 2002 from NEMESIS), Fort Bragg Harbor (in 2001, Fairey et al. 2002, cited in NEMESIS), Bodega Harbor (Standing et al. 1975, cited by Carlton 1979 from NEMESIS), Tomales Bay (in 1947, Carlton 1979, cited in NEMESIS), Elkhorn Slough (Osburn 1952, cited by Carlton 1979 from NEMESIS), Monterey Bay (Haderlie 1971, cited by Carlton 1979 from NEMESIS ), and Morro Bay, California (in 1964, Powell 1970, cited in NEMESIS). *Introduced [Schizoporella unicornis (synonymised species)] In San Francisco Bay, it was first collected from Berkeley Yacht Harbor (in 1963, Banta 1963, cited by Cohen and Carlton 1995) *Non-indigenous Central Indo-Pacific [Malaysia] Langkawi (Taylor and Tan 2015) *Invasive Temperate Australasia [New Zealand] (Bock 2015; Bishop et al 2015b) *Introduced Temperate Northern Atlantic [UK] Discovered in fouling communities in Holyhead, Wales in 2010; Orkney Island in 2011; Portavadie and Shetland Islands in 2012; Scotland in 2011/2012; Devon (Collin et al 2015; NEMESIS 2016; Ryland et al 2014; Bishop et al 2015a; Bishop et al 2015b; Harrower et al 2015; Micael et al 2014; Nall et al 2015; Roy et al 2015; Porter et al 201) *Non-native [Norway] Ports of Florø, Ãlesund and Kristiansund (Porter et al 2015) *Non-native [Northeast Atlantic] First record of S. japonica at the Northeast Atlantic was from Holyhead, Wales as fouling communities. Subsequently, populations were found in the Orkney Islands on the east coast of Scotland, Portavadie on the west coast of Scotland (Ryland et al. 2014) and in the Shetland Islands (Collin et al. 2015, cited in NEMESIS), at Floro marina, Alesund marina, and Kristiansund harbour, Norway. (Porter et al. 2015) *Introduced Uncertain realm [Australia] (Bock 2015; Bishop et al 2015b) *Introduced Uncertain records: Eastern Indo-Pacific Possible candidate taxa to Hawaiian islands but listed as Schizoporella errata (Carlton and Eldredge 2015) Uncertain if introduced populations in Hawaii may be Schizoporella unicornis (NEMESIS 2016) Temperate Australasia Uncertain if introduced populations in New Zealand may be Schizoporella unicornis (NEMESIS 2016) Uncertain realm Uncertain if introduced populations in Australia may be Schizoporella unicornis (NEMESIS 2016) May be present in Australia where a species ascribed to S. unicornis, but possibly in fact S. japonica, was reported in 1975 following importation of Pacific oysters (Bishop et al 2015b; Dick et al 2005) Pacific oysters were transplanted from Japan to Australia in the mid-1900s and nominal S. unicornis (=S. ?japonica) was reported in Sydney Harbour in 1975 (Ross and McCain 1976, cited in Dick et al 2005) RELATED: Temperate Northern Pacific [Schizoporella unicornis] [Mexico] Gulf of California (Soule 1961)

Status Date Non-native:

[Canada] First found on west coast Canada (Strait of Georgia, BC) in early-mid 1930s (NEMESIS 2016; Davidson et al 2014; Dick et al 2005) [US] West Coast: Samish Bay, Puget Sound in 1927 (McCain and Ross 1974 and Ross and McCain 1976, cited in NEMESIS 2016; Dick et al 2005) [US] Alaska: First collected in Alaskan waters in 1998 in Valdez and Tatilek, Prince William Sound, and in 2001-2003 was also found in Ketchikan and Sitka (Ruiz et al 2006) [Mexico] First collection from Gulf of California in 1959 (Soule 1961; Soule and Soule 1964) [Malaysia] Langkawi, collected in 2013; few prior descriptions of bryozoans in Malaysia (Taylor and Tan 2015) [UK] First record in Great Britain in 2010; In Wales discovered in February 2011 (Ryland et al 2014, cited in Bishop et al 2015a; NEMESIS 2016) [Norway] Found in Floro, Alesund and Kristiansund in June-July 2014 (NEMESIS 2016) [The Pacific Coast of North America] Samish Bay, Puget Sound (first collection in the US West Coast): 1927 (McCain and Ross 1974; Ross and McCain 1976, cited by Carlton 1979 from NEMESIS 2016) [The Pacific Coast of North America] Tomales Bay: 1947 (Carlton 1979, cited in NMESIS 2016) [The Pacific Coast of North America] Berkeley Yacht Harbor, San Francisco Bay: 1963 (Banta 1963, cited by Cohen and Carlton 1995) [The Pacific Coast of North America] Morro Bay, California: 1964 (Powell 1970, cited in NEMESIS 2016) [The Pacific Coast of North America] Central Vancouver Island to Puget Sound and Willapa Bay: 1969. (Powell 1970, cited in NEMESIS 2016) [The Pacific Coast of North America] Coos Bay, Oregon: 1986 (Carlton 1989, cited in NEMESIS 2016), and Humboldt Bay: 1992 (Barnhart et al. 1992, cited by Boyd et al. 2002 from NEMESIS 2016) [The Pacific Coast of North America] Valdez and Tatilek, Prince William Sound, Alaska: 1998 (Hines and Ruiz 2000, cited in NEMESIS 2016) [The Pacific Coast of North America] Fort Bragg Harbor: 2001 (Fairey et al. 2002, cited in NEMESIS 2016) [The Pacific Coast of North America] Ketchikan, Alaska: 2001 (Ruiz et al., 2006, cited in NEMESIS 2016, Dick et al. 2005) [The Pacific Coast of North America] Sitka, Alaska: 2001 (Ruiz et al. 2006, cited in NEMESIS 2016) [Northeast Atlantic] Marina at Holyhead, North Wales: July 2010. (Ryland et al. 2014) [Northeast Atlantic] Orkney Islands: from May 2011. (Ryland et al. 2014) [Northeast Atlantic] After the record of Orkney Islands, it was recorded subsequently at other localities in nourthern Scotland. (Ryland et al. 2014) [Northeast Atlantic] Floro, Alesund, and Kristiansund, Norway: June-July 2014. (Porter et al. 2015). CONFLICT: Pacific oysters were transplanted from Japan to Australia in the mid-1900s and nominal S. unicornis (=S. ?japonica) was reported in Sydney Harbour in 1975 (Ross and McCain 1976, cited in Dick et al 2005)

Vectors and Spread

Initial Vector:

Aquaculture and Fisheries, Hull fouling (recreational, commercial)

Second Vector:

Hull fouling (recreational, commercial)

Vector Details:

Invasion to N. America with Pacific Oysters from Japan (Powell 1970 and Dick et al 2005, cited in NEMESIS 2016; Harbo 2011; Clarke Murray et al 2011) Introduced to Pacific Northwest from Japan through oyster seed in the early to mid 1930s (Harbo 2011; Carlton 2007; Porter et al 2015; Powell 1970, cited in Dick et al 2005) Recreational vessel hulls (Clarke Murray et al 2011; Clarke Murray et al 2014; Ashton et al 2014; Cook et al 2015; Collin et al 2015; Davidson et al 2014) S. j. in Newport Bay, Los Angeles is assumed to be arrived with Pacific oysters, Crassostrea gigas, which had been imported from Japan since 1932. (Powell 1970, cited in Ryland et al. 2014) As for California, Powell attributed its arrival to the extensive importation of Pacific oysters from Japan in the period 1926-1935. (Ryland et al. 2014) All of the British occurrences of the species have been in marinas, suggesting that—unlike the Pacific coast of North America (see later)—small, ocean-going vessels must have been the vectors. (Ryland et al. 2014) Vectors of transmission to Norway could be leisure or commercial craft travelling between ports in Norway, and between Norway, Shetland, the Faroes, and Iceland. (Porter 2015) RELATED: Main vector of transport (into Norwegian waters) is highly likely to be leisure craft, as evidenced by the frequent observation of non-native and invasive species in recreational marinas. Some of the doorknocker species may enter Norwegian waters via the aquaculture route (Porter et al 2015) Vectors of transmission could be leisure or commercial craft travelling between ports in Norway, and between Norway, Shetland, the Faroes and Iceland (Porter et al 2015)

Spread Rate:

Northward expansion on the US West Coast (Ashton et al 2014) Colonizing into Europe from the Atlantic in a west to east direction and then spreading along coastlines (Porter et al 2015) Southward expansion in the UK towards France (Bishop et al 2015a) [UK] First record in Great Britain in 2010; In Wales discovered in February 2011 (Ryland et al 2014, cited in Bishop et al 2015a; NEMESIS 2016) Northward expansion in Scotland (Nall et al 2015) Taxonomic uncertainties make it difficult to document the spread of this bryozoan (NEMESIS 2016) Low natural dispersion range (Collin et al 2015)

Date First Observed in Japan:

Original description by Ortmann (1890) from specimens at Sagami Bay, Honshu (Dick et al 2005; Ryland et al 2014) [Schizoporella unicornis (synonymised species)] Fossil records of the species from early Pliocene (Hayami 1975)

Date First Observed on West coast North America:

US West Coast: Samish Bay, Puget Sound in 1927 (McCain and Ross 1974 and Ross and McCain 1976, cited in NEMESIS 2016) [The Pacific Coast of North America] Samish Bay, Puget Sound (first collection in the US West Coast): 1927 (McCain and Ross 1974; Ross and McCain 1976, cited by Carlton 1979 from NEMESIS 2016)

Impacts

Impact in Japan:

Little effect on live oysters, because settled primarily on dead shells and rocks, but were rarely seen on living animals (Powell 1970, cited in NEMESIS 2016)

Global Impact:

Little effect on live oysters, because settled primarily on dead shells and rocks, but were rarely seen on living animals (Powell 1970, cited in NEMESIS 2016) Dominate substrate, particularly problematic for marinas and harbours, as well as the aquaculture industry (Collins et al 2015; Dick et al 2005; Needles and Wendt 2013; Nall et al 2015) [Economic Impacts] Schizoporella spp. are common fouling organisms on ships' hulls, docks, and other hard surfaces (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution 1952). Ryland (1971) suggests that the calcareous layers produced by the bryozoans may actually protect pilings and docks from borers (NEMESIS 2016). Powell (1970) considered that S. japonica (as S. unicornis) had little effect on live oysters, because the bryozoans settled primarily on dead shells and rocks, but were rarely seen on the living animals. (NEMESIS 2016) [Ecological Impacts] Schizoporella spp. frequently dominate the fouling community on man-made structures and on rocks, shells, and algae (Ryland 1965, cited in NEMESIS 2016; Powell 1970, cited in NEMESIS 2016; Sutherland 1981, cited in NEMESIS 2016; Hayward and McKinney 2002, cited in NEMESIS 2016). RELATED: Schizoporella spp. are common fouling organisms on ships' hulls, docks and other hard surfaces. May actually protect pilings and docks from borers (Ryland 1971, cited in NEMESIS 2016) Frequently dominate the fouling community on man-made structures and on rocks, shells, and algae (Ryland 1965, Powell 1970, Sutherland 1981 and Hayward and McKinney 2002, cited in NEMESIS 2016)

Tolerences

Native Temperature Regime:

Cold water, Cool temperate, Mild temperate, Warm temperate, Subtropical, Tropical

Native Temperature Range:

Arctic/Boreal species (Porter et al 2015) Inhabitant of warm temperate and tropical waters. Reported from temperate waters of the Atlantic and the tropical waters of the Caribbean and the southwest Pacific (Soule 1961) Cold water species (Ryland et al 2014) Akkeshi Bay: Surface to 50m depth temperature from 7-14°C (Dick et al 2008) Hong Kong: max 28.5ºC in summer and min 18.1ºC in winter. (Clark et al. 2003) Cool temperate, Mild temperate, Warm temperate, Subtropical, Tropical (M. Otani, pers. comm.)

Non-native Temperature Regime:

Cold water, Cool temperate, Mild temperate, Warm temperate, Subtropical, Tropical

Non-native Temperature Range:

Approximate sea surface temperatures for West Coast states range from 6 to 14°C in Ketchikan, Alaska (Ashton et al 2014) Cold water species (Ryland et al 2014) Pacific coast of North America; Temperate waters of the Atlantic and the tropical waters of the Caribbean and southwest Pacific (Soule 1961) San Francisco: max 20.0ºC in summer and min 11.0ºC in winter. (Clark et al. 2003) Cool temperate, Mild temperate, Warm temperate (M. Otani, pers. comm.)

Native Salinity Regime:

Mesohaline, Polyhaline, Euhaline

Native Salinity Range:

Salinity range: Polyhaline and Euhaline (NEMESIS 2016) Hong Kong: max 34.0psu in dry period and min 10.0psu in wet period. (Clark et al. 2003) RELATED Cribrilina, Membranipora, Hippoporina, Schizoporella, Smittina and related genera are supported by polyhaline water. Although Membranipora is a euryhaline genus, it is found in mesohaline water, namely 3-16%o (Hayami 1975)

Non-native Salinity Regime:

Mesohaline, Polyhaline, Euhaline

Temperature Regime Survival:

Cold water, Cool temperate, Mild temperate, Warm temperate, Subtropical, Tropical

Temperature Range Survival:

Cold temperate - Warm temperate (NEMESIS 2016) Cold water species (Ryland et al 2014) Inhabitant of warm temperate and tropical waters. Reported from temperate waters of the Atlantic and the tropical waters of the Caribbean and the southwest Pacific (Soule 1961) RELATED: Schizoporella are true eurythermal genera, occurring in shallow water in tropical as well as in boreal and antiboreal regions (Cheetham 1963, cited in Hayami 1975)

Temperature Regime Reproduction:

NF

Temperature Range Reproduction:

NF

Salinity Regime Survival:

Mesohaline, Polyhaline, Euhaline, Hypersaline

Salinity Range Survival:

18-40 PSU (NEMESIS 2016) Occurred in hyposaline water, down to salinities of 15 (Powell et al 1970, cited in Ryland et al 2014) Powell et al. (1970) noted that S. j. (as S. unicornis) occurred in hyposaline water, down of 15. (Ryland et al. 2014) RELATED: Schizoporella genera supported by polyhaline water; In water more than 40%o salinity, Schizoporella have been reported living in the Suez Canal (Borg 1930 and Hutchins 1945, cited in Hayami 1975)

Salintiy Regime Reproduction:

Polyhaline, Euhaline

Salinity Range Reproduction:

NF

Depth Regime:

Lower intertidal, Shallow subtidal, Deep subtidal

Depth Range:

Subtidal and low intertidal (Crawford and Irvine 2011; NEMESIS 2016; Nall et al 2015) Intertidal to 60m (Harbo 2011) 10-40 meters (Hayami 1975) Collected at 2-7m depth (Grischenko and Zvyagintsev 2012) 0.5 - 40 fms (0.9-72m) (Soule 1961) Kakijima Island in Akkeshi Bay: -0.1m MLLW. (Grischenko et al. 2007) Barasan Cape in Akkeshi Bay: -0.05m MLLW. (Grischenko et al. 2007) Gangan-Iwa in Oshoro Bay: 0-2m deep. (Kubota & Mawatari 1985)

Non-native Salinity Range:

Native Abundance:

Common

Reproduction

Fertilization Mode:

Internal

Reproduction Mode:

Hermaphrodite/monoecious

Spawning Type:

NA

Development Mode:

Lecithotrophic planktonic larva (non-feeding)

Asexual Reproduction:

Budding/fragmentation (Splitting into unequal parts. Buds may form on the body of the “parent”)

Reproduction Details:

Lecithotrophic larva, have short planktonic period (less than 1 day) (Hayward and Ryland 1998, cited in NEMESIS 2016; Nall et al 2015; Ruiz et al 2006) Larvae are non-feeding coronate larvae that develop in the ovicell of the parent zooid (Ross 1976, cited in Treibergs 2012) until they are released into the water column; broods embryos; short pelagic larval duration; settle and metamorphose on a suitable surface within minutes to hours after being released from the adult colony (McCain 1972, cited in Treibergs 2012) No additional larvae settled after initial 24 hours of study (Treibergs 2012) RELATED: [Schizoporella] Hermaphroditic and brood embryos in ovicells (Temkin 1991) [Order: Cheilostomata] Free spawning species produce the characteristic triangular cyphonautes larva. These larvae are long-lived and planktotrophic. The larval body is enclosed in a membranous shell; the size can be up to little over 1 mm. Cyphonautes larvae are not keyed out - if possible at all. (van Couwelaar 2003) [Gymnolaemates] Internal fertilization, whether intracoelomic or intraovarian, is obligatory (Temkin 1994 and 1996, cited in Ostrovsky 2013) [Gymnolaemates] Differ from most organisms in that sperm-egg fusion does not stimulate egg activation. Egg activation may not occur until "spawned" outside of maternal zooid (Temkin 1991) [Bryozoans] While sperm is spawned through pores in lophophore tentacles, eggs are usually harbored inside the body wall, and are internally fertilized by sperm, coming in on lophophore feeding currents (Brusca and Brusca 2003, cited in Rouse 2011; Kozloff 1990, cited in Rouse 2011) [Bryozoans] Colonial hermaphrodites, with testes (spermatogenic tissue) and ovaries developing either within the same zooid (zooidal hermaphroditism) or in different zooids within the same colony (zooidal gonochorism) (Ostrovsky 2013) [Bryozoa] Members of the phylum Bryozoa are hermaphroditic. Both fertilization and egg brooding may either be internal or external (Ruppert et al. 2004) [Bryozoa] All bryozoan colonies are hermaphroditic. Autozooids may be dioecious; or monoecious, and protandrous or protogynous. (Hayward & Ryland 1999) [Bryozoa] Reproduces asexually by budding. (Mawatari 1976)

Adult Mobility:

Sessile

Adult Mobility Details:

Heavily calcified encrusting bryozoan (NEMESIS 2016) RELATED: [Bryozoa] The abundance and taxonomic diversity of benthic bryozoan faunas are directly related to substratum. (Hayward & Ryland 1999) [Bryozoa] Bryozoan colonies are sessile (Hayami 1975) [Bryozoa] Bryozoans are a phylum of sessile, colonial suspension feeders found throughout the world in both marine and freshwater environments. (Tilbrook 2012)

Maturity Size:

Colony size can grow to 5cm or more across (NEMESIS 2016; Harbo 2011; Dick et al 2005; Grischenko et al 2007) Can form large, encrusting, foliose sheets up to 20cm in diameter (Collin et al 2015; Ryland et al 2014) Colonies form sheets up to 200mm long and 0.3-0.5mm wide (Ruiz et al 2006) Zooids: 0.48-0.90mm long by 0.25-0.51mm wide (Dick et al 2005; Ruiz et al 2006; Hayami 1975; Ryland et al 2014) Orifice: 112-144μm x 126-171μm (Ryland et al 2014)

Maturity Age:

NF

Reproduction Lifespan:

Breeding season in Britain extends through the winter. (Ryland et al. 2014)

Longevity:

NF

Broods per Year:

Produces larvae year-round (Treibergs 2012)

Reproduction Cues:

[Laboratory] Used light as a cue/delayed larvae spawning control (Treibergs 2012) RELATED: [Bryozoans] Experiments often used light as a cue to collect embryos/larvae (Woollacott and Zimmer 1977) [Bryozoa] In coastal species light is an important stimulus to larval release, and many cheilostomates shed larvae during the first few hours of daylight. (Hayward & Ryland 1999) [Bryozoa] In various degrees of intensity according to the species temperature also stimulates sexual reproduction. (Winston 1977)

Reproduction Time:

[UK] Reproductive season extends into the winter, including mid-winter (February) (Ryland et al 2014; Collin et al 2015) [US] Produces larvae year-round, peak production in fall and winter (McCain 1972 and Powell 1970, cited in Treibergs 2012) [Japan] 68.2% of colonies observed with embryos during collection periods of June 2-7 and July 2-6 in Akkeshi Bay (Grischenko et al 2007) [Britain] Breeding season in Britain extends through the winter. (Ryland et al. 2014) [Schizoporella unicornis (synonymised species)] Described as S. unicornis but in the UK, larvae found in ovicells in July and August (times when collection was made) and undoubtedly occurred before and beyond these dates. At. Beaufort, North Carolina, they are found the year round according to McDougall (2004). In North Carolina, times of greatest abundance of larvae were in May, June, September, October and November (Rogick and Croasdale 1949)

Fecundity:

250 larvae were collected from 70 colonies in the experiment; 51 larvae from 30 colonies (Treibergs 2012)

Egg Size:

RELATED: Ovicell: 0.28-0.40mm long by 0.28-0.40mm wide (Dick et al 2005) [Gymnolaemata] About 200µm (Woollacott and Zimmer 1977)

Egg Duration:

NF

Early Life Growth Rate:

Larvae have short planktonic period (less than 1 day) (Hayward and Ryland 1998, cited in NEMESIS 2016) Larvae settle and metamorphose within minutes to hours of release from adult colony (Treibergs 2012) RELATED: [Gymnolaemata] Two phases of larvae metamorphosis: first stage about 20mins; second stage 1-6 days (Woollacott and Zimmer 1977)

Adult Growth Rate:

Colony growth rate in laboratory conditions were exponential over 102 days (r2=0.9729) but natural conditions may be slower due to competition for space (Treibergs 2012)

Population Growth Rate:

Colony growth rate in laboratory conditions were exponential over 102 days (r2=0.9729) but natural conditions may be slower due to competition for space (Treibergs 2012)

Population Variablity:

NF

Habitat

Ecosystem:

SAV, Rocky intertidal, Rocky subtidal, Mussel reef, Oyster reef, Macroalgal beds, Fouling, Other

Habitat Type:

Epibenthic, Epiphytic, Epizoic, Under rock

Substrate:

Cobble, Rock, Biogenic, Artificial substrate

Exposure:

Semi-exposed, Protected, Very protected

Habitat Expansion:

NF

Habitat Details:

Heavily calcified encrusting bryozoan, growing on rocks, shells and algae. Colonies sometimes form a double layer. Can be very abundant on panels but never seen to form bryoliths in US. Known from oyster beds, pilings, shells, algae and fouling plates (Powell 1970, cited in NEMESIS 2016; Dick et al 2005) Natural and artificial substrates (Collins et al 2015) General habitats: marinas & docks, rocky, vessel hull, coarse woody debris, oyster reef (NEMESIS 2016; Ryland et al 2014) Epibenthic vertical habitat (NEMESIS 2016) On rocks, shells, floats and other hard surfaces (Harbo 2011) Encrusting shells, rock substrates and algae; covered exposed benchrock faces, occupied large portions of the undersides of boulders (Dick et al 2015) Reported as an epizoan on the horseshoe crab Limulus polyphemus (Johnston 1947, cited in Key et al 1996) Will fracture or detach under wave surge; normally confined to hard substrata and colonize only the quietest algal beds (Seed and O'Connor 1981) Growing on plastic floats of the pontoons, also on shells of Mytilus edulis that were also attached to pontoons (Porter et al 2015; Ryland et al 2014) Encrusting boat hulls (Clarke Murray et al 2011; Ashton et al 2014) Seagrass communities (Williams 2007) [Japan] Found 87.1% of time on rock, 12.9% of shells in Akkeshi Bay (Grischenko et al 2007) [Japan] Attached to stones and shells of Cirripedia in Mutsu Bay. (Okuda 1929) [Japan] Attached to stones in Oshoro Bay. (Kubota & Mawatari 1985) [Japan] Attached to rock or bivalve shell in Akkeshi Bay. (Grischenko et al. 2007) [Japan] Attached to the scallop shell transplanted with oysters (Crassostrea gigas) from Onagawa Bay, on the Pacific coast of Honshu. (Powell et al. 1970, cited in Ryland et al. 2014) [Malaysia] Encrusting bivalves fouling a rope hanging from the jetty. (Taylor & Tan 2015) [the Pacific coast of North America] Zoarium (as S. unicornis) encrusting shells, stones and almost anything that will afford attachment. (Osburn 1952) Note: As pointed out by Ryland et al. (2014), these habitats may be the information for three species of S. japonica, S. errata, and S. pseuderrata. [Northeastern Atlantic] Fouled a fender at Holyhead marina and a boat hull at Orkney Island, Great Britain. (Ryland et al. 2014) Semi-exposed, Protected (M. Otani, pers. comm.)

Trophic Level:

Suspension feeder

Trophic Details:

Feeds on phytoplankton, suspension feeder (NEMESIS 2016) RELATED: [Bryozoans] Suspension feeder...filter phytoplankton less than 0.045mm in size from the water column. (Hill 2001) [Bryozoa] Many phytoplankton species are cleary unsuitable as food for bryozoans. (Hayward & Ryland 1999) [Cheilostomata] Main food is diatom, protozoans and etc. and unappropriate sized particles are ejected (Mawatari 1976)

Forage Mode:

Generalist

Forage Details:

Zooids feed by extending the ciliated tentacles of the lophophore as a funnel, creating a current, and driving food particles into their mouths. Food guided along the tentacles and through the pharynx by the cilia (NEMESIS 2016) RELATED: [Bryozoans] Suspension feeder...filter phytoplankton less than 0.045mm in size from the water column. (Hill 2001) [Bryozoa] Many phytoplankton species are cleary unsuitable as food for bryozoans. (Hayward & Ryland 1999) [Cheilostomata] Main food is diatom, protozoans and etc. and unappropriate sized particles are ejected (Mawatari 1976)

Natural Control:

COMPETITION [Competition] Competition of space with other invertebrates (Dick et al 2005) PREDATION [Predation] Did not observe instances of macropredation but multiple instances of predation on embryos or larvae in ovicells by a turbellarian (Treibergs 2012) RELATED: PREDATION [Predation] [Bryozoa] Browsers and grazers, including sea urchins, fish, crabs and some prosobranchs, are known to include bryozoans in their diet. (Hayward & Ryland 1999) [Predation] [Bryozoa] Bryozoans are also the prey of very many small, selective predators, some of which may be adapted to a very narrow spectrum of prey species. Among them opisthobranch predators of bryozoans are well known. (Hayward & Ryland 1999) [Predation] [Bryozoa] Other than opisthobranchs as a predator, amphipods, isopods, mites and pycnogonids have all been recorded preying on bryozoan colonies. (Hayward & Ryland 1999) EPIBIONTS [Epibionts] [Cheilostomata] It is frequently observed in Japan that several species of hydroids flourish on Cheilostomata cause damages to them. (Mawatari 1976)

Associated Species:

EPIBIONT [Epibiont] Hosts undescribed species of Loxosomella on Pacific Coast (Carlton 2007)

References and Notes

References:

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Literature:

Moderate level of information; data from comparable regions or older data (more than 10 years) from the area of interest

Notes:

Because of confusion with S. unicornis, S. errata, and other Schizoporella spp., the extent of its native and introduced ranges is uncertain. Specimens previously identified as S. unicornis from easternPacific and Northeast Atlantic should be considered as S. japonica (Dick et al 2005; Carlton 2007)