Phascolosoma scolops

Overview

Scientific Name: Phascolosoma scolops

Phylum: Sipuncula

Class: Phascolosomatidea

Order: Phascolosomatida

Family: Phascolosomatidae

Genus: Phascolosoma

Species:

scolops [Describe here as A. iricolor]

Native Distribution

Origin Realm:

Temperate Northern Pacific, Central Indo-Pacific, Eastern Indo-Pacific, Western Indo-Pacific, Tropical Eastern Pacific, Temperate Australasia, Temperate Northern Atlantic, Tropical Atlantic, Temperate South America, Temperate Southern Africa

Native Region:

Origin Location:

Temperate Northern Pacific [Japan] Okayama; Ikeda; Kuroshima Island; Seto Island; Hatakejima Island; Sea of Japan; Okinawa; from Ishigaki Island along both sides of main islands up as far as Hokkaido (Catalan and Yamamoto 1994; Cutler and Cutler 1981; Cutler et al 1984; Iwamoto et al 1988; Nishikawa and Ueshima 2006; Ohgaki 2002; Tokioka 1953) STATUS STATED [Japan] From as far south as Ishigaki Island, Okinawa Prefecture, along both side of the main islands up as far as Hokkaido with the northernmost record in Akkeshi Bay, including Izu Islands and Ogasawara Islands. (Cutler et al. 1984) STATUS NOT STATED South to north Japan (Cutler 1994). STATUS NOT STATED [Korea] Munseom and Beomseom, around the Seogwipo region, Jeju Island. (Cho et al. 2014) STATUS NOT STATED [Korea] (OBIS 2015; Maiorova and Adrianov 2013) STATUS NOT STATED [China] South of Yangtse River. (Tseng & Huang 1987) STATUS NOT STATED Korea (Cutler et al. 1984) STATUS NOT STATED [Russia] Okhotsk Sea; Peter the Great Bay; Sea of Japan (Maiorova and Adrianov 2013) STATUS NOT STATED Japan (Haldar 1976) STATUS NOT STATED [Phycosoma scolops (Synonymized taxon)] [Korea] Utsuryo Island, Cheju Island, Inchon, Kaishu, Genzan, Zyosin. (Sato 1939) STATUS NOT STATED Central Indo-Pacific [China] South coast of China, south of Yangtse River. (Tseng & Huang 1987) STATUS NOT STATED [Australia] Great Barrier Reef; Queensland (Dean et al 2010; Edmonds 1956 and Edmonds 1980, cited in Ghory and Tahera 2014; Murina and Zavodnik 1986; Taylor 1989) STATUS NOT STATED [China] Hong Kong; Hainan Island; Beibu Gulf of China (Taylor and Morton 1996; Pagola-Carte and Saiz-Salinas 2000; Taylor 1989; Tseng and Huang 1987; Yan et al 2006) STATUS NOT STATED [Phycosoma scolops (Synonymized taxon)] [Formosa] Daizyubo. (Sato 1939) STATUS NOT STATED [Vietnam] Nha Trang Bay; South China Sea (Adrianov and Maiorova 2012; Pagola-Carte and Saiz-Salinas 2000) STATUS NOT STATED Malay Archpelago and Indonesia, Laccadive and Maldiv Islands, Pacific Islands; Great Barrier Reef, south to northern Australia (Cutler 1994). STATUS NOT STATED Philippine, Java; Funafuti; Loyalty Islands (Haldar 1976) STATUS NOT STATED [Australia] Great Australian Bight (OBIS 2015; Cutler 1977) STATUS NOT STATED [Japan] Okayama; Ikeda; Kuroshima Island; Seto Island; Hatakejima Island; Sea of Japan; Okinawa; from Ishigaki Island along both sides of main islands up as far as Hokkaido (Catalan and Yamamoto 1994; Cutler and Cutler 1981; Cutler et al 1984; Iwamoto et al 1988; Nishikawa and Ueshima 2006; Ohgaki 2002; Tokioka 1953) STATUS STATED Eastern Indo-Pacific [US] Hawaii (Kohn 1970; Cutler 1994; Dean et al 2010) STATUS NOT STATED Western Indo-Pacific Indian Ocean (Stephen & Edmonds 1972) STATUS NOT STATED [India] Andaman; Nicobar Islands(Halder 1976; Ghory and Tahera 2014; Rao and Sastry 2005) STATUS NOT STATED [Thailand] Andaman Sea; Phuket (Hylleberg 1994; Hylleberg and Aungtonya 2013; Tsuchiya et al 1986, cited in Pagola-Carte and Saiz-Salinas 2000) STATUS NOT STATED [Madagascar] Nosy Be (Cutler 1965) STATUS NOT STATED [Maldives] Addu Atoll (Taylor 1983) STATUS NOT STATED [Indian Ocean] Red Sea (OBIS 2015; Fishelson 1971; Wesenberg-Lund 1957, cited in Ghory and Tahera 2014) STATUS NOT STATED [Africa] Zanzibar; Mozambique; South East Africa (Cutler 1965; Cutler 1977; Kawauchi and Giribet 2010) STATUS NOT STATED Red Sea (the distribution in this area may be doubted by Cutler 1994), Zanzibar, Madagascar, Mozambique (Cutler 1994). STATUS NOT STATED [Pakistan] Buleji; northern Arabian Sea (Ghory and Tahera 2014) *First record for Pakistan, but recorded previously from nearby areas [Indian Ocean] Red Sea; Gulf of Suez; Gulf of Aqaba; Zanzibar; Tanzania; South Africa; Mozambique; Madagascar; Lakshzdweep and Maldive Islands; Sri Lanka; Penang; Singapore; Christmas Islands; Sumbawa; Timor and Tasmania (Haldar 1976) STATUS NOT STATED Tropical Eastern Pacific [Costa Rica] Isla del Coco, first record of species in Eastern Pacific from 2008 (Dean et al 2010) *Natural range spread from western Pacific Temperate Australasia [New Zealand] (Adrianov and Maiorova 2012) STATUS NOT STATED South to northern Australia; Tasmania (Multiple authors, cited in Stephen & Edmonds 1972) STATUS NOT STATED New Zealand; Port Jackson, Sydney;; Gold Coast; (Haldar 1976) STATUS NOT STATED Temperate Northern Atlantic [Denmark] (OBIS 2015) STATUS NOT STATED [UK] London (Shipley et al 1883 and Shipley 1898, cited in Ghory and Tahera 2014) STATUS NOT STATED [France] Paris (Leroy 1942, cited in Ghory and Tahera 2014) STATUS NOT STATED [Spain] (Saiz 1984, cited in Ghory and Tahera 2014) STATUS NOT STATED UK; Germany; France (Haldar 1976) STATUS NOT STATED [Israel] (Stephen 1965, cited in Ghory and Tahera 2014) STATUS NOT STATED Tropical Atlantic [Caribbean] (OBIS 2015) STATUS NOT STATED Annobon Island; Belgium Congo and Ascension (Haldar 1976) STATUS NOT STATED Temperate South America Sao Thome (Haldar 1976) STATUS NOT STATED Temperate Southern Africa [Africa] South Africa coastline (Cutler 1965; Cutler 1977; Cutler 1994; Kawauchi and Giribet 2010) STATUS NOT STATED Uncertain realm Widely distributed throught torpical and subtropical areas of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans (Stephen & Edmonds 1972), including Formosa (Cutler et al. 1984) STATUS NOT STATED West Indies, West Africa (the distribution in this area may be doubted by Cutler 1994), China, (Cutler 1994). STATUS NOT STATED Billiton; West Indies; St. Berthelemy (Haldar 1976) STATUS NOT STATED

Geographic Range:

Indo-West Pacific area; Red Sea; Eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea; Caribbean Sea; West and South Africa; Madagascar; west Indies; Indian Ocean; Great Barrier Reef (Açik et al 2005; Cutler et al 1984; Murina and Zavodnik 1986) Circumtropical and circumboreal species, widespread in the Pacific and Indian Ocean, also known from the Red Sea (Adrianov and Maiorova 2012) Japan; Philippine, Java; Funafuti; Loyalty Islands; New Zealand; UK; Billiton; Germany; France; West Indies; Port Jackson; Sydney; St. Berthelemy; Gold Coast; Sao Thome; Annobon Island; Belgium Congo and Ascension (Haldar 1976) [Western Pacific] New Zealand to the Bering Sea; Japan to China (Adrianov and Maiorova 2012) [Eastern Pacific] Costa Rica (Dean et al 2010) [Eastern Atlantic] Scandinavia; UK to Spain (OBIS 2015; Ghory and Tahera 2014) Mediterranean Sea (Açik et al 2005; Açik 2008; Murina and Zavodnik 1986) [Indian Ocean] Red Sea; Gulf of Suez; Gulf of Aqaba; Zanzibar; Tanzania; South Africa; Mozambique; Madagascar; Lakshzdweep and Maldive Islands; Sri Lanka; Penang; Singapore; Christmas Islands; Sumbawa; Timor and Tasmania (Haldar 1976) Off Sout East Africa: 34º56'S, 36º31'E; Great Australian Bight: 37º28'S, 138º55'E. (Cutler 1977) Northern hemisphere: 0º to 43ºN both Pacific side and Japan Sea side, in which north of 26º is Japanese coasts. (Inaba 1988)

General Diversity:

Polyphyletic species, a number of junior synonyms; specimens from Hawaii considered in different clade than those from Indian Ocean and the Red Sea (Schulze et al 2007)

Non-native Distribution

Invasion History:

Yes, see inv_propens

Non-native Region:

Mediterranean Sea

Invasion Propens:

Temperate Northern Atlantic [Turkey] Mediterranean Sea (Zenetos et al. 2005, cited in Açik 2008) *Casual alien [Cyprus] Mediterranean Sea in 1997 and 1998 (Açik et al 2005, cited in Açik 2008) *Alien Mediterranean Sea in 1997 and 1998. Cyprus: Karpas Cape, Gazi Magosa Bay, Gazi Magosa Bay, Limanbasi Cape, and Malazgirt (Açik et al. 2005) *Lessepian migrant (migration of Red Sea species through the Suez Canal into the Mediterranean) [Croatia] Adriatic Sea; Mediterranean Sea (Saiz-Salinas 2015; Açik 2008; Pecarevic et al 2013) *Introduced [Mediterranean Sea] Adriatic Sea, first observations in Mediterranean area from samples collected in 1973/74 (Murina and Zavodnik 1986) *First observations in Mediterranean area Adriatic Sea and eastern Mediterranean. (Zenetos et al. 2010) *Alien and established

Status Date Non-native:

[Cyprus] Karpas Cape, Gazi Magosa Bay, Limanbasi Cape, and Malazgirt: July 1998. (Açik et al. 2005) [Cyprus] Observed in 1997/1998 (Açik et al 2005; Açik 2008) [Adriatic Sea] First observations in the Mediterranean Sea in samples collected in 1973-74 (Murina and Zavodnik 1986)

Vectors and Spread

Initial Vector:

Hull fouling (commercial), Natural dispersal

Second Vector:

NF

Vector Details:

Dispersal by shipping in Croatian part of the Adriatic Sea (Saiz-Salinas 2015) Possible that North Equitorial countercurrent could carry marine larval forms from the Indo-Pacific and central Pacific regions, especially during El Nino events (Dean et al 2010)

Spread Rate:

Spread from Adriatic Sea to eastern Mediterranean (Açik et al 2005)

Date First Observed in Japan:

Samples collected in 1884 (Nishikawa and Ueshima 2006)

Date First Observed on West coast North America:

Known to exist there since 1970, probably earlier (Kohn 1970)

Impacts

Impact in Japan:

NF

Global Impact:

Destruction of corals (Otter 1937, cited in Hylleberg 1994)

Tolerences

Native Temperature Regime:

Cold water, Cool temperate, Mild temperate, Warm temperate, Subtropical Tropical

Native Temperature Range:

Circumtropical and circumboreal species (Adrianov and Maiorova 2012) Circumtropical and subtropical species (Cutler 1977) Belongs to warm temperate waters (Haldar 1976) Tropico-temperate (Murina and Zavodnik 1986) [Australia] Samples collected at 3.5°C (Cutler 1977) [Madagascar] Temperatures range from 25.2 to 31.3°C (Cutler 1965) [Red Sea] 18 - 33°C (Fishelson 1971) Great Australian Bight (37º28'S, 138º55'E): 3.5ºC at 1320-1340 m. (Cutler 1977) [Japan] Akkeshi Bay, Hokkaido: The lowest recorded water temperature was -1.4ºC in February 2003, the highest 21.1ºC in August 2004. (Grischenko et al. 2007) [Japan] Naha, Okinawa: max 30ºC in summer and min 20ºC in winter. (Clarke et al. 2003) Cold water, Cool temperate, Mild temperate, Warm temperate, Subtropical, Tropical (M. Otani, pers. comm.)

Non-native Temperature Regime:

Warm temperate

Non-native Temperature Range:

[Adriatic Sea] Referring to the temperature range of P. granulatum distributed adjacent to P. s. (Murina & Zavodnik 1985/1986), that of P. s. is also presumed between 9.4 and 23.6ºC. (Otani pers. comm.) Warm temperate (M. Otani, pers. comm.)

Native Salinity Regime:

Polyhaline, Euhaline

Native Salinity Range:

[Madagascar] Salinity ranges from 29.0 to 35.57%o (Cutler 1965) [Japan] Akkeshi Bay, Hokkaido: it ranged from 26 psu in June to 31 psu in August. (Grischenko et al. 2007) [Japan] Naha, Okinawa: max 34.5 psu in dry season and min 27 psu in wet season. (Clarke et al. 2003)

Non-native Salinity Regime:

Euhaline

Temperature Regime Survival:

Cold water, Cool temperate, Mild temperate, Warm temperate, Subtropical, Tropical

Temperature Range Survival:

Cold water, Cool temperate, Mild temperate, Warm temperate, Subtropical, Tropical (M. Otani, pers. comm.)

Temperature Regime Reproduction:

Cold water, Cool temperate, Mild temperate, Warm temperate, Subtropical, Tropical

Temperature Range Reproduction:

Cold water, Cool temperate, Mild temperate, Warm temperate, Subtropical, Tropical (M. Otani, pers. comm.)

Salinity Regime Survival:

Polyhaline, Euhaline

Salinity Range Survival:

Polyhaline, Euhaline (M. Otani, pers. comm.)

Salintiy Regime Reproduction:

Polyhaline, Euhaline

Salinity Range Reproduction:

Polyhaline, Euhaline (M. Otani, pers. comm.)

Depth Regime:

Lower intertidal, Shallow subtidal, Deep subtidal, Bathyal, Abyssal

Depth Range:

VARIABILITY Depth range 0 - 5220m (Cutler 1977 and Saiz Salinas 1993, cited in Açik et al 2005) Usually found at intertidal and shallow depths (Adrianov and Maiorova 2012) [Japan] Collected at intertidal zone (Catalan and Yamamoto 1994) [Vietnam] Sampled at 7 and 15m depth; intertidal (Adrianov and Maiorova 2012) [Thailand] At 0-20m depth (Hylleberg 1994) [Cyprus] Found at 0 - 15m depth range (Açik et al 2005) [Africa] Samples from 5220m (Cutler 1977) Off Sout East Africa (34º56'S, 36º31'E): 5,220 m; Great Australian Bight (37º28'S, 138º55'E): 1,320-1,340 m. (Cutler 1977) Usually found at intertidal and shallow depths (<30 m). (Cutler 1994) [Cyprus] Northern coast of Cyprus: 0-10 m. (Açik et al. 2005) [Japan] Seto Inland Sea: Lower intertidal to 20-30 m. (Inaba 1988)

Non-native Salinity Range:

Native Abundance:

Rare, Few, Common, Abundant

Reproduction

Fertilization Mode:

External

Reproduction Mode:

Gonochoristic/dioecious

Spawning Type:

Broadcast

Development Mode:

Planktotrophic planktonic larva (feeding)

Asexual Reproduction:

Does not reproduce asexually

Reproduction Details:

Gametogenesis reproduction (Sawada 1975, cited in Amor 1993) Dioecious species; Coelomic oocytes never in clusters; spermatocyte spheres are about 30-60μm (Catalan and Yamamoto 1994) RELATED: [Sipuncula] Gametes released into the coelom, where they continue the maturation process; Oocytes are in diplotene stage of prophase I when they are released from the ovary (Cutler 1994;Catalan and Yamamoto 1994) [Sipuncula] Before spawning, mature gametes are accumulated into the nephridia where they are stored for a short time before expulsion into the surrounding seawater (Rice 1975, cited in Catalan and Yamamoto 1994) [Sipuncula] In General, sipunculans are more active in night, so it is not surprising that most breeding occur then. (Gerould 1907 and others, cited in Cutler 1994). The presence of sperm in the water stimulates females to release their eggs, and fertilization occurs in the water. (Cutler 1994) [Phascolosoma] The larvae of three species of Phascolosoma have two pelagic stages: trochophore and planktotrophic pelagoshera. (Cutler 1994)

Adult Mobility:

Actively mobile

Adult Mobility Details:

RELATED: [Sipuncula] The burrowing and crawling behavior of sipunculans is very much like that of other vermiform coelomates. (Cutler 1994)

Maturity Size:

Maximum trunk length: 65mm (Saiz Salinas 1986, cited in Açik et al 2005) Up to 4cm in length (Hylleberg 1994) [Japan] Trunk length ranges from 2-25mm (Cutler et al 1984) [Vietnam] Trunk 18-25mm long and 3-4mm wide (Adrianov and Maiorova 2012) [Cyprus] Trunk 5.5-9.7mm long; 2.4-4.3mm wide; tentacles 2.3-14.5mm long (Açik et al 2005) The smallest individual with coelomic gametes encountered during the sampling period measured 1 cm in trunk length. (Catalan & Yamamoto 1994)

Maturity Age:

NF

Reproduction Lifespan:

Though oocytes were present throughout the year, they showed rapid growth until July. Smaller oocytes were noted thereafter, indicating a summer spawning. (Catalan & Yamamoto 1994)

Longevity:

NF

Broods per Year:

NF

Reproduction Cues:

RELATED: [Sipuncula] In General, sipunculans are more active in night, so it is not surprising that most breeding occur then. (Gerould 1907 and others, cited in Cutler 1994). The presence of sperm in the water stimulates females to release their eggs, and fertilization occurs in the water. (Cutler 1994)

Reproduction Time:

[Japan] Oocytes and sperm clusters were present throughout the year; observed summer spawning (Catalan and Yamamoto 1994) Though oocytes were present throughout the year, they showed rapid growth until July. Smaller oocytes were noted thereafter, indicating a summer spawning. (Catalan & Yamamoto 1994) [Japan] Ooctyes of various sizes were present throughout the year except in January, when oocytes greater than 130μm were not present; small ooctyes dominating from September through March; Larger-size group (210-240μm) found only in July (Catalan and Yamamoto 1994) Two major peaks in gamete density: one during oocyte proliferation and one before spawning (Catalan and Yamamoto 1994)

Fecundity:

Highest density of about 18million oocytes per milliliter observed in January (Catalan and Yamamoto 1994)

Egg Size:

Stage 7 of oocytes >149μm (Catalan and Yamamoto 1994) The size of the largest oocyte is 180 to 210μm. (Catalan & Yamamoto 1994)

Egg Duration:

NF

Early Life Growth Rate:

From January to March, small oocytes grew at an average rate of 10μm per month; Oocytes had rapid growth from March until July at about 20μm monthly (Catalan and Yamamoto 1994)

Adult Growth Rate:

NF

Population Growth Rate:

NF

Population Variablity:

Trunk length of Cypriot specimens (5.5-9.7mm) smaller than that reported from Adriatic Sea (12-14mm) (Murina and Zavodnik 1985/1986, cited in Açik et al 2005)

Habitat

Ecosystem:

Tide flats, Sediment subtidal, Rocky intertidal, Rocky subtidal, Coral reef, Worm reef, Coralline algae, Macroalgal beds, Fouling, Other

Habitat Type:

Epibenthic, Epiphytic, Epizoic, Under rock, Borer

Substrate:

Mud, Sand, Mixed fine sediment, Gravel, Cobble, Mixed sediments, Rock, Hardpan, Biogenic, Artificial substrate

Exposure:

Exposed, Semi-exposed, Protected

Habitat Expansion:

NF

Habitat Details:

Usually found at intertidal and shallow depths in soft rocks, dead corals and coarse sand (Adrianov and Maiorova 2012) Intertidal species found in coral or soft stone, or sometimes in sandy pockets between rocks (Cutler et al 1984) Inhabits muddy sand/gravel, in the intertidal and shallow subtidal areas; intertidally it occurs under stones, in crevices and in burrows made by boring clams (Ghory and Tahera 2014) In burrows (probably of their own construction), in reef limestone (Kohn 1970) Lives among ascidian colonies and sandstone debris, in the sand between gravel stones, among stones in intertidal pools, among shells, in abandoned tubes of the polychaete Gunnaria capensis and in the corridors among loose gravels or in the heaps of dead corals (Murina and Zavodnik 1986) Samples found commonly inside crevices and small holes in well-sutured sandstone; collected at intertidal zone (Catalan and Yamamoto 1994) [China] Beibu Gulf of China, found on fixed oil platforms (Yan et al 2006) [Vietnam] Found boring in bivalve shell; among coral rubble and in fouling community (Adrianov and Maiorova 2012) [Cyprus] Found at bare rock, Cystoseira crinita and Posidonia oceanica (Açik et al 2005) [Maldives] Collected at seaward reef flat and lagoon reef (Taylor 1983) P. s. lives in soft rocks. (Cutler 1994) P. s. prefers rocky and sandy portions of the intertidal zone. (Catalan & Yamamoto 1994) [Cyprus] Northern coast of Cyprus: on Posidonia oceanica, on Cystoseira crinita, on rocks. (Açik et al. 2005) [Japan] P. s. was collected at coral reef, rock, sandy pockets, and dead coral. (Cutler et al. 1984) [Japan] P. s. was collected at rock and algae. (Inaba 1988) [China] P. s. is observed as one of fouling animals at south coasts of Yangtse River. (Tseng & Huang 1987) Exposed, Semi-exposed (M. Otani, pers. comm.)

Trophic Level:

Deposit feeder

Trophic Details:

RELATED: [Sipuncula] Mainly deposit feeders (Murina 1984) [Phascolosoma] The introvert repeatedly runs out and in, scraping and collecting algae, small invertebrates, and detritus from the surrounding surfaces. (Cutler 1994)

Forage Mode:

Generalist

Forage Details:

RELATED: [Phascolosoma] The introvert repeatedly runs out and in, scraping and collecting algae, small invertebrates, and detritus from the surrounding surfaces. (Cutler 1994)

Natural Control:

PREDATION [Predation] Found in gut content of Mitra spp.(Taylor and Morton 1996; Kohn 1970; Taylor 1989) [Predation] Food for coral-reef Drupa (Taylor 1983) [Predation] Sipunculans are preyed by fish, actinians, crabs, and octopus. (Yamada 1976) PARASITE [Parasite] Host of Coelotrophus nudus (parasitic: endoparasitic) (Saiz-Salinas 2015; Ho et al 1981, cited in Honma and Kitami 1995) [Parasite] Andoparasitic copopod Coelotrophus nudus caused sterility in about a third of P. s. at Sado Island. (Ho et al., cited in Cutler 1994)

Associated Species:

PARASITE [Parasite] Host of Coelotrophus nudus (parasitic: endoparasitic) (Saiz-Salinas 2015; Ho et al 1981, cited in Honma and Kitami 1995) [Parasite] Andoparasitic copopod Coelotrophus nudus caused sterility in about a third of P. s. at Sado Island. (Ho et al., cited in Cutler 1994)

References and Notes

References:

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(in Japanese with English abstract) Catalan MAB & Yamamoto M (1994) Annual reproductive cycle of two Japanese species of sipunculans: Siphonosoma cumanense (Sipunculidae) and Phascolosoma scolops (Phascolosomatidae). Pacific Science 48(2): 145-157. https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/2205/1/v48n2-145-157.pdf Cho IY, Kang DW, Kang J, Hwang H, Won JH, Paek WK, Seo SY (2014) A study on the biodiversity of benthic invertebrates in the waters of Seogwipo, Jeju Island, Korea. Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity 7: e11-e18. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2287884X14000053 Clarke C, Hillard R, Junqueira AOR, Neto ACL, Polglaze J, Raaymakers S (2003) Ballast water risk assessment, Port of Sepetiba, Fedral Republic of Brazil. GloBallast Monograph Series 14: 1-63 + 7 Appendices. Cutler, E. B. (1965). Sipunculids of Madagascar. Extrait des cahiers ORSTOM-Oceanographie, 3(4), 51-63. Cutler, E. B. (1977). The bathyal and abyssal Sipuncula. Galathea Report, 14, 135-156. Cutler, E. B. (1994). The Sipuncula. Their Systematics, Biology and Evolution. London, UK: Cornell University Press Cutler, E. B., & N. J. Cutler. (1981). A reconsideration of Sipuncula named by I. Ikeda and H. Sato. Publications of the Seto Marine Biological Laboratory, 26(1-3), 51-93. Cutler, E. B., Cutler, N. J., & Nishikawa, T. (1984). The Sipuncula of Japan: Their systematics and distribution. Publications of the Seto Marine Biological Laboratory, 29(4-6), 249-322. Dean HK, Sibaja-Cordero JA, Cortés J, Vargas R, Kawauchi GY (2010) Sipunculans and Echiurans of Isla del Coco (Cocos Island), Costa Rica. Zootaxa 2557: 60–68. http://www.sinac.go.cr/documentos/616_dean%20et%20al.%202010%20zootaxa%202557%2060-68.pdf Fishelson, L. (1971). Ecology and distribution of the benthic fauna in the shallow waters of the Red Sea. Marine Biology, 10(2), 113-133. Ghory, F., & Tahera, Q. (2014). Phascolosoma scolops (Selenka and De Man, 1883) (Phascolosomatiformes: Phascolosomatidae) First Time Recorded in Pakistan. Fuuast J. Biol., 4(1), 57-59. Grischenko AV, Dick MH, Mawatari SF (2007) Diversity and taxonomy of intertidal Bryozoa (Cheilostomata) at Akkeshi Bay, Hokkaido, Japan. Journal of Natural History 41: 1047-1161. Haldar, B. P. (1976). Sipuncula from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Rec Zool Surv India, 70(1), 1-9. Ho JS, Katsumi F, Honma Y (1981) Coelotrophus nudus gen. et sp. nov., an endoparasitic copepod causing sterility in a sipunculan Phascolosoma scolops (Selenka and De Man) from Sado Island, Japan. Parasitology 82: 481-488. Honma, Y., & Kitami, T. (1995). Fauna and Flora in the Waters Adjacent to the Sado Marine Biological Station, Niigata University: Supplement 2. Rep. Sado Mar. Biol. Stat. Niigata Univ., 25, 13-30 Hylleberg, J. (1994). Phylum Sipuncula.-Part 2. Cryptic fauna with emphasis on sipunculans in hump coral Porites lutea, the Andaman Sea, Thailand. 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Literature:

Moderate level of information; data from comparable regions or older data (more than 10 years) from the area of interest

Notes:

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