Nereis pelagica

Overview

Scientific Name: Nereis pelagica

Phylum: Annelida

Class: Polychaeta

Order: Phyllodocida

Family: Nereididae

Genus: Nereis

Species:

pelagica [Describe here as A. iricolor]

Native Distribution

Origin Realm:

Arctic, Temperate Northern Atlantic, Temperate Northern Pacific, Tropical Eastern Pacific, Tropical Atlantic, Temperate South America, Temperate Australasia

Native Region:

Origin Location:

CONFLICT: Northeast Pacific. Native in the NEP (J. Carlton, pers. comm) Temperate Northern Pacific [Nereis pelagica neonigripes] Morro Bay, California (Needles & Wendt 2013) STATED [Nereis pelagica] Bering Sea to Panama; Japan (Boyd 2002) *Noted as NATIVE to North Atlantic, North Pacific, and circumboreal [Nereis pelagica] Strait of Georgia, BC, Canada (Macdonald et al. 2010) STATUS NOT STATED [Nereis pelagica] Widely reported from all seas; northeast Pacific is noted (Hartman 1948) STATUS NOT STATED [Nereis pelagica] North Pacific (Kirkengaard 1998) STATUS NOT STATED [Neries pelagica] Cosmopolitan; Bering Sea to Panama; Japan (Blake et al. 1994) STATUS NOT STATED [Nereis pelagica] Bute Inlet, British Columbia, Canada (Lee 1974) STATUS NOT STATED [Nereis pelagica] Around Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu, Isu archipelago and Amami Island. (Imajima 1972) STATUS NOT STATED [Nereis pelagica] Rishiri Island, Hokkaido (Kato et al. 2003) STATUS NOT STATED [Nereis pelagica] On the light buoy in Tokyo Bay. (Imajima 1980) STATUS NOT STATED [Nereis pelagica] Among attaching organisms at Abratsubo Bay. (Imajima & Hayashi 1969) STATUS NOT STATED [Nereis pelagica] Off Chojaga-saki, Hayama, Kanagawa Prefecture. (Imajima 1968) STATUS NOT STATED [Nereis pelagica] At the intertidal zone at Manazuru, Kanagawa Prefecture. (Imajima & Gamo 1970) STATUS NOT STATED [Nereis pelagica] Off the coast of Shimoda, Shizuoka Prefecture. (Imajima 1982) STATUS NOT STATED [Nereis pelagica] Osaka Bay (Yamanishi 1980) STATUS NOT STATED Temperate South America [Nereis pelagica] Straits of Magellan, South Chile (Ríos et al. 2007) STATUS NOT STATED Temperate Northern Atlantic [Nereis pelagica] North Atlantic (Lu et al. 2007) STATED [Nereis pelagica] NW Europe (Norway to Mediterranean Sea); USA (New England to Florida) (Boyd 2002) *Noted as NATIVE to North Atlantic, North Pacific, and circumboreal [Nereis pelagica] Rum Bay, Plymouth, UK (Wilson 1932) STATUS NOT STATED [Nereis pelagica] Millport, Scotland (Evans 1973) STATUS NOT STATED [Nereis pelagica] Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada (Fradette & Bourget 1980) STATUS NOT STATED [Nereis pelagica] Northern Øresund, Denmark (Karisbakk & Køie 2012) STATUS NOT STATED [Nereis pelagica] South Isle of Man, Irish Sea (Prathep et al. 2003) STATUS NOT STATED [Nereis pelagica] West Greenland; Iceland; Faroes; Norway (entire coast) to Mediterranean; east coast of North America (Hudson Bay to Florida) (Kirkengaard 1998) STATUS NOT STATED [Neries pelagica] Cosmopolitan; Norway to Mediterranean Sea; New England to Florida (Blake et al. 1994) STATUS NOT STATED [Nereis pelagica] Kiel Bight (Western Baltic) (Tschischka et al. 2000) STATUS NOT STATED [Nereis pelagica] Bay of Fundy, Canada (Wildish & Peer 1983) STATUS NOT STATED Tropical Atlantic West Africa; USA (New England to Florida); Bering Sea to Panama; Japan; South Pacific (Boyd 2002) *Noted as NATIVE to North Atlantic, North Pacific, and circumboreal South Atlantic; West Africa; North Pacific (Kirkengaard 1998) STATUS NOT STATED Temperate Australasia [Nereis pelagica] New South Wales, Australia. (Day & Huchings 1979) STATUS NOT STATED Arctic [Nereis pelagica] Canadian Arctic; southeast Baffin Island (63º18.6' N, 64º08.2'W) (Atkinson & Percy 1991) STATUS NOT STATED [Nereis pelagica] Hudson Bay, Canada (Atkinson & Wacasey 1989) STATUS NOT STATED [Nereis pelagica] White Sea (Khalaman & Naumov 2009) STATUS NOT STATED [Nereis pelagica] Chupa Bay (White Sea) (Tschischka et al. 2000) STATUS NOT STATED Uncertain realm [Nereis pelagica] South Pacific (Boyd 2002) *Noted as NATIVE to North Atlantic, North Pacific, and circumboreal [Neries pelagica] Cosmopolitan; South Pacific (Blake et al. 1994) STATUS NOT STATED RELATED: [Nereis spp.] Norsminde Fjord, Denmark (Kristensen 1988)

Geographic Range:

-175.900009155273 -53.1000022888184,124.600006103516 72.0999984741211 (OBIS 2016) Bering Sea (Boyd 2002) to the Straits of Magellen, Chile (Ríos et al. 2007) West Greenland & Iceland to West Africa (Kirkengaard 1998) [Japan] Tokyo Bay: 35º 28.3'N, 139º 59.3'E 35º 22.5'N, 139º 50.4'E 35º 22.4'N, 139º 50.3'E 35º 24.4'N, 139º 45.3'E 35º 21.5'N, 139º 45.2'E 35º 21.0'N, 139º 43.3'E 35º 15.2'N, 139º 46.2'E 35º 12.3'N, 139º 46.5'E 35º 35.0'N, 140º 03.6'E (Imajima 1996) [Australia] New South Wales: 33º S, 151º E (Day & Huchings 1979)

General Diversity:

NF

Non-native Distribution

Invasion History:

CONFLICT No records of invasion (Global Invasive Species Database 2015) Introduced to Nanaimo, Prince Rupert, Vancouver, Esquimalt, BC, Canada (Lu et al. 2007)

Non-native Region:

Northeast Pacific

Invasion Propens:

CONFLICT: Northeast Pacific. Native in the NEP (J. Carlton, pers. comm) Temperate Northern Pacific Introduced to Nanaimo, Prince Rupert, Vancouver, Esquimalt, BC, Canada (Lu et al. 2007) *Note: source of status not reported California (Boyd et al. 2002) *Cryptogenic

Status Date Non-native:

NF

Vectors and Spread

Initial Vector:

Hull fouling (commercial)

Second Vector:

NF

Vector Details:

Found on hulls of ocean-going ships (Moshchenko & Zvyaginstev 2001)

Spread Rate:

NF

Date First Observed in Japan:

NF

Date First Observed on West coast North America:

NF

Impacts

Impact in Japan:

NF

Global Impact:

Can evict other worms from their tubes, and inflict injury during fights (notably against Nereis diversicolor) (Evans 1973)

Tolerences

Native Temperature Regime:

See details

Native Temperature Range:

[Hudson Bay, Canada] Samples collected at -0.35 - 2.32 ºC (Atkinson & Wacasey 1989) [Nereis pelagica] Found in Arctic waters below 0ºC (Kirkengaard 1998) [Nereis pelagica] [Bahía Laredo] Surface water temperatures (though samples were taken from 8 m depth) ranged from 1.5°C (June) and 14.0°C (January) (Ríos et al. 2007) [Nereis pelagica] [Fuerte Bulnes] Surface water temperatures (though samples were taken from 8 m depth) ranged from 1.0ºC (June) to 12.0°C (January) (Ríos et al. 2007) [Nereis pelagica] [Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada] Surface temperatures vary from ~4 ºC (Lauzier et al. 1957, cited in Fradette & Bourget 1980) to 15 - 20 ºC (Bousfield 1955a, cited in Fradette & Bourget 1980) [Nereis pelagica] [Seto Inland Sea, Japan] Sea temperature at surface is 23.9 - 28.6 ºC in summer and 17.5 - 19.6 ºC in winter at Takehara, Hiroshima Prefecture. (Marine Ecology Research Institute 2012) RELATED: [Nereis spp.] Norsminde Fjord, Denmark: water temperature ranges from -0.8ºC in winter to 27.0 ºC in summer; shallow water can reach 30 ºC (Kristensen 1988)

Non-native Temperature Regime:

NF

Non-native Temperature Range:

NF

Native Salinity Regime:

Mesohaline, Polyhaline, Euhaline

Native Salinity Range:

[Hudson Bay, Canada] Samples collected at 30.08 - 32.79 psu (Atkinson & Wacasey 1989) [Nereis pelagica] [Bahía Laredo] Surface water salinity (though samples were taken from 8 m depth) ranged from 30 to 33 psu (Ríos et al. 2007) [Nereis pelagica] [Fuerte Bulnes] Surface water salinity (though samples were taken from 8 m depth) ranged from 32 to 34 psu (Ríos et al. 2007) [Nereis pelagica] [Northern Øresund, Denmark] 12–20‰ salinity (Karisbakk & Køie 2012) [Nereis pelagica] [Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada] 29 - 32 psu (Fradette & Bourget 1980) [Nereis pelagica] [North River, Florida Everglades] Present when salinity was over 10 psu (Odum & Heald 1972) [Nereis pelagica] [Seto Inland Sea, Japan] Salinity at surface is 31.8 - 32.0 ºC in summer and winter at Takehara, Hiroshima Prefecture. (Marine Ecology Research Institute 2012) RELATED: [Nereis virens, N. succinea, N. diversicolor] [Denmark] Brackish (Kristensen 1988) [Nereis virens, N. succinea, N. diversicolor] Euryhaline to moderate stenohaline species (Kristensen 1988) [Nereis spp.] Norsminde Fjord, Denmark: salinity ranges from 10.5 psu in winter to 21.6 psu in summer (Kristensen 1988)

Non-native Salinity Regime:

NF

Temperature Regime Survival:

See details

Temperature Range Survival:

-0.537 - 27.199 ºC (OBIS 2016)

Temperature Regime Reproduction:

NF

Temperature Range Reproduction:

NF

Salinity Regime Survival:

Polyhaline, Euhaline, See details

Salinity Range Survival:

25.730 - 36.175 PPS (OBIS 2016) RELATED: [Nereis virens, N. succinea] Norsminde Fjord, Denmark: limited survival at salinities below 15 psu (multiple authors, cited in Kristensen 1988)

Salintiy Regime Reproduction:

Polyhaline, Euhaline

Salinity Range Reproduction:

RELATED: [Nereis diversicolor] Norsminde Fjord, Denmark: Survive and reproduce from 5 - > 30 psu (multiple authors, cited in Kristensen 1988)

Depth Regime:

Upper intertidal, Lower Intertidal, Shallow subtidal, Deep subtidal, Bathyal, See details

Depth Range:

Sampled from -2 - 627 m (OBIS 2016) [Nereis pelagica] Intertidal to upper slope (Carlton 2007) [Canadian Arctic; southeast Baffin Island] 31 m depth (Atkinson & Percy 1991) [Hudson Bay, Canada] Samples collected at 40 - 60 m depth (Atkinson & Wacasey 1989) [Nereis pelagica] 2 - 3 m deep; 8 - 12 m (Kiel Bight); 1 - 2 m (Chupa Bay) (Tschischka et al. 2000) [Nereis pelagica] Intertidal to 1200 m. Low intertidal sand (Boyd 2002) [Nereis pelagica] Low water and down to 656 m (Kirkengaard 1998) [Nereis pelagica] Found high on the shore (3.5 m above lowest astronomical tide (LAT)) (Prathep et al. 2003) Input as upper intertidal [Nereis pelagica] [Northeast Pacific] 18 - 188 fathoms (~33 - 344 m) (Moore 1908) [Nereis pelagica] [Northern Øresund, Denmark] 4–12 m (Karisbakk & Køie 2012) [Neries pelagica] Intertidal to 1200 m depth (Blake et al. 1994) [Nereis pelagica] [Japan] Intertidal to 98 m deep (Imajima & Mitsuoka 1991) [Nereis pelagica] Off Chojaga-saki, Hayama, Kanagawa Prefecture: 150 m. (Imajima 1968) [Nereis pelagica] At the intertidal zone at Manazuru, Kanagawa Prefecture. (Imajima & Gamo 1970) [Nereis pelagica] Off the coast of Shimoda, Shizuoka Prefecture: 31 - 110 m deep. (Imajima 1982) RELATED: [Nereis vexillosa] High to mid intertidal zones (Sept 1999) [Nereis eakini] Intertidal (Carlton 2007) [Nereis grubei] Intertidal to low water (Carlton 2007) [Nereis latescens] Intertidal to shallow depths (Carlton 2007) [Nereis procera] Intertidal to upper slope (Carlton 2007) [Nereis vexillosa] Intertidal (Carlton 2007); mid to low intertidal (Cowles 2009)

Non-native Salinity Range:

Native Abundance:

Abundant, Common

Reproduction

Fertilization Mode:

external

Reproduction Mode:

Gonochoristic/ dioecious

Spawning Type:

Broadcast

Development Mode:

Planktotrophic planktonic larva (feeding)

Asexual Reproduction:

Does not reproduce asexually

Reproduction Details:

[Neries pelagica] Free spawning with planktotrophic larvae (Wilson 1991) [Neries pelagica] Ect-aquasperm (sperm used in broadcast spawning) (Jamieson & Rouse 1989) [Neries pelagica] Separate sexes; epitokes (Blake et al. 1994) RELATED: [Family Nereididae] Eggs and sperm are released through breaks in the body wall as a cloud; then the worms die (Kozloff 1990) [Nereis vexillosa] Males release sperm, then females release eggs; afterward, they die (Sept 1999) [Class Polychaeta] Asexual reproduction is linked to regeneration capacity, which is restricted in polychaetes (Ansell et al. 1997)

Adult Mobility:

Actively mobile (Mobility is a normal part of at least part of the adult life cycle - at least in spurts. Not dependent upon distance traveled)

Adult Mobility Details:

[Nereis pelagica] Motile (Fradette & Bourget 1980) [Nereis pelagica] Wanders between tubes, and may evict other worms from tubes (Evans 1973) RELATED: [Family Nereididae] Efficient crawlers; many can also swim or burrow (Kozloff 1990) [Nereis spp.] Mobile, but moving isn't necessary for feeding (Macdonald et al. 2010) [Nereis vexillosa] Adults swim while spawning (Sept 1999)

Maturity Size:

Length to 160 mm, width to 14 mm (including parapodia), more than 100 segments (Blake et al. 1994) RELATED: [Nereis vexillosa] Reaches 15 cm (Kozloff 1993). Up to 30 cm (Sept 1999)

Maturity Age:

NF

Reproduction Lifespan:

NF

Longevity:

Estimated life span of 4 years (Wildish & Peer 1983)

Broods per Year:

[Nereis pelagica] Semelparous (Ecklebarger 1983) RELATED: [Family Nereididae] Individuals die after spawning (Kozloff 1990) [Nereis vexillosa] Individuals die after spawning (Sept 1999)

Reproduction Cues:

RELATED: [Nereis vexillosa] Breeding season is linked to the full moons of the summer (Sept 1999)

Reproduction Time:

[Neries pelagica] Epitokous specimens are found year-round in surface waters; most often in spring and summer (Blake et al. 1994) RELATED: [Nereis vexillosa] Full moons in the summer (Sept 1999) [Nereis vexillosa] [Pacific Northwest] Late winter or spring (Cowles 2009)

Fecundity:

RELATED: [Nereis spp.] 1000 - 49000 eggs (BIOTIC 2015)

Egg Size:

Each egg was ~180µm, encased in a ~225µm cavity with a ~150 µm think gelatinous envelope (Wilson 1932)

Egg Duration:

NF

Early Life Growth Rate:

[Nereis pelagica] Larvae ceased to swim (crawling instead) at 18 days. One rapidly growing worm had seven adult pairs of parapodia (with the eighth pair forming) 40 days post fertilization. Worms had about 21 pairs of parapodia at 65 days old, and 60 (~1.5 cm long) at one year old (Wilson 1932) RELATED: [Nereis vexillosa] Larvae remain as plankton for hours to months (Cowles 2009)

Adult Growth Rate:

NF

Population Growth Rate:

[Nereis pelagica] [Bay of Fundy, Canada] Mean wet biomass production of 3.36 (max of 11.04) grams per meter square per year (Wildish & Peer 1983)

Population Variablity:

[Nereis pelagica] [White Sea] No long-term trends in the abundance of this species in the 20 years of observation, but there was an 11-14 year cycle (Khalaman & Naumov 2009)

Habitat

Ecosystem:

Sediment subtidal, Rocky intertidal, Rocky subtidal, Mussel reef, Oyster reef, Fouling, Macroalgal beds, Coastal shore, Other, See details

Habitat Type:

Epibenthic, Infaunal, Epizoic, Epiphytic, Under rock

Substrate:

Mud, Sand, Biogenic, Rock, Artificial substrate

Exposure:

Semi-exposed, Protected

Habitat Expansion:

NF

Habitat Details:

VARIABILITY [Nereis pelagica] Rocky habitats; intertidal to upper slope (Carlton 2007) [Nereis pelagica] Artificial structures (Lu et al. 2007) [Nereis pelagica] Burrows (VHB 1996) [Nereis pelagica] Inhabits macrophyte belts; muddy sediments; sponges or bunches of red algae; Mytilus ropes; epibenthic (Tschischka et al. 2000) [Nereis pelagica] Beneath boulders on a rocky shore (Evans 1973) [Nereis pelagica] In crevices or under stones; may live in tubes when they're available (Clark 1959) [Nereis pelagica] Soft, sandy sediments; rocks; encrusting animals; algal holdfasts. Low intertidal sand (Boyd 2002) [Nereis pelagica] Sheltered and moderately exposed shores (Prathep et al. 2003) [Nereis pelagica] [Northeast Pacific] green mud and fine sand; broken shells; rocks (Moore 1908) [Nereis pelagica] Found on hulls of ocean-going ships (Moshchenko & Zvyaginstev 2001) [Nereis pelagica] Found in the fouling community on buoys (Fradette & Bourget 1980) [Neries pelagica] Wide variety of substrata: soft sandy bottoms to rocks, sometimes mud, encrusting animals, algal holdfasts (Blake et al. 1994) [Nereis pelagica] [Japan] Sand mud bottom, zostera belt, and oyster bed. (Inaba 1988) [Nereis pelagica] [Japan] Ohiama-Fukushima, Hokkaido: zostera bed. (Imajima 1966) [Nereis pelagica] [Japan] Abratsubo Bay: among attaching organisms on hanging ropes of test panels. (Imajima & Hayashi 1969) [Nereis pelagica] [Japan] Hiroshima: among attaching organisms on Oyster. (Imajima 1966) RELATED: [Family Nereididae] Open coast to estuaries; soft sediment and cryptic habitats (Carlton 2007) [Nereis vexillosa] Sand and mud beaches, beneath rocks, on wharf pilings, in mussel beds; high to mid intertidal zones; protected to exposed shores. Builds flexible tubes out of mucous, sand and stones (Sept 1999) [Nereis vexillosa] Mussel beds, under rocks, under pieces of wood; quiet bays; burrows, but is usually close to surface (Kozloff 1993) [Nereis eakini] Intertidal rocky habitats (Carlton 2007) [Nereis grubei] Among algae on rocky shores; intertidal to low water (Carlton 2007) [Nereis latescens] Algal holdfasts, among rock and debris; intertidal to shallow depths (Carlton 2007) [Nereis procera] Silt, sand, rocks; intertidal to upper slope (Carlton 2007) [Nereis vexillosa] Mussels, barnacles, pilings; Intertidal on open coast (Carlton 2007) [Nereis virens] organic poor sandy sediment (vegetation-free); tidal channel; mussel bed (Kristenen 1988)

Trophic Level:

See details

Trophic Details:

VARIABILITY [Nereis pelagica] Omnivore (VHB 1996) [Nereis pelagica] Carnivore (Wildish & Peer 1983; Prathep et al. 2003) [Nereis pelagica] Omnivorous consumer of fine plant detritus, algae, small crustaceans (e.g. harpacticoid copepods and amphipods) (Odum & Heald 1972) RELATED: [Family Nereididae] Most taxa are herbivores and consume algae, but some feed on detritus (especially when algae is scarce). Some species are opportunistic carnivores and scavengers (Kozloff 1990) [Nereis vexillosa] Eats algae (Kozloff 1993) [Nereis spp.] Omnivorous surface feeder; detritus and eats live animals; particulate organic matter, benthic microfauna (including diatoms and other single-celled organisms) (Macdonald et al. 2010)

Forage Mode:

NF

Forage Details:

NF

Natural Control:

PREDATION [Predation] [Canadian Arctic; southeast Baffin Island] Found in the stomach of Gymnocanthus tricuspis (Arctic staghorn sculpin)(Atkinson & Percy 1991) [Predation] [Ireland and Azores] Consumed by Loligo forbesi (veined squid) (Hastie et al. 2009) [Predation] [Port Burwell, Northwest territories, Canada] Found in the stomachs of Atalntic Salmon (Salmo salar) (Neilson & Gillis 1979) [Predation] [Kandalaksha Gulf, White Sea] Significant portion (16.7%) of White Sea cod (Gadus morhua marisalbi) diet (Ershov 2010) [Predation] [Florida everglades, USA] Eaten by Trinectes maculatus and Achirus lineatus (Odum & Heald 1972) [Predation] Eaten by haddock, Atlantic cod, herring (Pettibone 1963, cited in Blake et al. 1994) PARASITES [Parasites] Host of myxosporean Sigmomyxa sphaerica. Post-mortem examination (due to accidental increase in temperature) found that the organs of one N. pelagica specimen were gone and hundreds of free actinospores were present. Healthy specimens in the same batch did not die (Karlsbakk & Køie 2012)

Associated Species:

PARASITES [Parasites] Host of myxosporean Sigmomyxa sphaerica. Post-mortem examination (due to accidental increase in temperature) found that the organs of one N. pelagica specimen were gone and hundreds of free actinospores were present. Healthy specimens in the same batch did not die (Karlsbakk & Køie 2012)

References and Notes

References:

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Santa Barbara, California: Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History Boyd MJ, Mulligan TJ, Shaughnessy FJ (2002) Non-indigenous marine species of Humboldt Bay, California. Department of Fish and Game, California. http://vvww.krisweb.com/biblio/hum_hsu_boydetal_2002.pdf Burd BJ, McGreer E, Taekema B, Macdonald TA (2009) Utility of large regional databases for understanding abundance and diversity characteristics of natural marine soft substrate fauna. Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 2859. www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/Library/340084.pdf Carlton JT (2007) The Light and Smith manual: intertidal invertebrates from central California to Oregon. London, England: University of California Press, Ltd Clark RB (1959) The tubicolous habit and the fighting reactions of the polychaete Nereis pelagica. Animal Behaviour 7(1-2): 85-90. www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0003347259900363 Cowles D (2009) Nereis vexillosa. http://www.wallawalla.edu/academics/departments/biology/rosario/inverts/Annelida/Nereidae/Nereis_vexillosa.html Access date: 02-09-2015 Day JH & Huchings PA (1979) An annotated check-list of Australian and New Zealand Polychaeta, Archiannelida and Myzostomida. Records of the Australian Museum 32: 80-161. Ecklebarger KJ (1983) Evolutionary radiation in polychaete ovaries and vitellogenic mechanisms: their possible role in life history patterns. Canadian Journal of Zoology 61: 487-504. www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/pdf/10.1139/z83-065 Ershov PN (2010) Changes in the Diet of the Coastal Cod Gadus morhua marisalbi in the Kandalaksha Gulf of the White Sea under Conditions of Increased Abundance of ThreeSpined Stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus. Journal of Ichthyology 50(1): 84-88. link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S0032945210010108 Evans SM (1973) A study of fighting reactions in some nereid polychaetes. Animal Behaviour 21(1): 138-146. www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S000334727380051X Fradette P & Bourget E (1980) Ecology of Benthic Epifauna of the Estuary and Gulf of St. Lawrence: Factors Influencing Their Distribution and Abundance on Buoys. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 37: 979-999. www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/pdf/10.1139/f80-127 George ADI, Abowei JFN, Daka ER (2009) Benthic Macro Invertebrate Fauna and Physico-chemical Parameters in Okpoka Creek Sediments, Niger Delta, Nigeria. International Journal of Animal and Veterinary Advances 1(2): 59-65. www.researchgate.net/publication/42368503_Benthic_Macro_Invertebrate_Fauna_and_Physico-chemical_Parameters_in_Okpoka_Creek_Sediments_Niger_Delta_Nigeria Global Invasive Species Database. http://www.issg.org/database/species/search.asp?sts=sss&st=sss&fr=1&x=25&y=15&sn=Nereis+pelagica&rn=&hci=-1&ei=-1&lang=EN Access date: 09-09-2015 Hartman O (1948) The polychaetous annelids of Alaska. Pacific Science 2: 3-58. scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/8890 Hastie LC et al. (2009) Cephalopods in the North-Eastern Atlantic: Species, Biogeography, Ecology, Exploitation and Conservation. Oceanography and Marine Biology: An Annual Review 47: 111-190. www.fulviofrisone.com/attachments/article/421/Oceanography%20and%20Marine%20Biology%20An%20Annual%20Review%20volume%2047.pdf Imajima M (1968) Polychaetous annelids from Hayama, Miura Peninsula. Science Report of the Yokosuka City Museum 14: 20-41. 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Literature:

Moderate level of information; data from comparable regions or older data (more than 10 years) from the area of interest

Notes:

NA