Mytilus galloprovincialis

Overview

Scientific Name: Mytilus galloprovincialis

Phylum: Mollusca

Class: Bivalvia

Order: Mytilida

Family: Mytilidae

Genus: Mytilus

Species:

galloprovincialis [Describe here as A. iricolor]

Native Distribution

Origin Realm:

Temperate northern Atlantic, Temperate South America, Temperate Australasia

Native Region:

Origin Location:

CONFLICT: Magellanic, Southern Australia and New Zealand Temperate Northern Atlantic Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic coast of southern Europe (NEMESIS 2015) STATED Northern form from Mediterranean Sea and western Europe (McDonald et al. 1991, cited in Elliot et al. 2008; Daguin and Borsa 1999, cited in Elliot et al. 2008; Hilbish et al. 2000, cited in Elliot et al. 2008) STATED Black and Mediterranean seas (Daguin et al. 2000, cited in Kijewski et al. 2011; Smietanka et al. 2004, cited in Kijewski et al. 2011) STATUS NOT STATED Temperate South America Southern form from Argentina, Chile, some islands, such as the Kerguelens and Falklands (McDonald et al. 1991, cited in Elliot et al. 2008; Daguin and Borsa 1999, cited in Elliot et al. 2008; Hilbish et al. 2000, cited in Elliot et al. 2008) STATUS NOT STATED Temperate Australasia New Zealand (McDonald et al. 1991, cited in Elliot et al. 2008; Daguin and Borsa 1999, cited in Elliot et al. 2008; Hilbish et al. 2000, cited in Elliot et al. 2008) STATUS NOT STATED Temperate Northern Atlantic SW England, the south and west coasts of Ireland and the north-east of Scotland and England. (Possibly absent from Wales, the Irish Sea coasts of England and Scotland, and SE England) (Skibinski et al. 1983) STATUS NOT STATED M. galloprovincialis diverged from M. edulis in the Mediterranean (Vermeij 1991, 1992, cited in Wonham 2004; Daguin and Borsa 2000, cited in Wonham 2004; Hilbish et al. 2000, cited in Wonham 2004), then migrated to the southern hemisphere (Vermeij 1991, 1992, cited in Wonham 2004; Daguin & Borsa 2000, cited in Wonham 2004; Hilbish et al. 2000, cited in Wonham 2004) STATED AS NATURAL DISPERSAL EVENTS (so taken as native) Uncertain realm Australia, some islands, such as the Kerguelens and Falklands (McDonald et al. 1991, cited in Elliot et al. 2008; Daguin and Borsa 1999, cited in Elliot et al. 2008; Hilbish et al. 2000, cited in Elliot et al. 2008) STATUS NOT STATED

Geographic Range:

Rock, Corwall/England/Celtic Sea (McDonald et al. 1991, cited in NEMESIS 2015, genetic identification); England-Ireland-Scotland/Atlantic Ocean (Hilbish et al. 2000, cited in NEMESIS 2015); Ireland/Galway Bay (Smietanka et al. 2004, cited in NEMESIS 2015) to Italy-Greece/Ionian Sea (Hilbish et al. 2000, cited in NEMESIS 2015) Found in high densities in southern Europe and the Black sea; also present on the Iberian Peninsula and Biscay Bay coasts (Kijewski et al. 2011)

General Diversity:

Two distinct subspecies (Southern Hemisphere M. galloprovincialis, and purebred Northern Hemisphere M. galloprovincialis) were identified by molecular surveys as well as hybrids between northern M. galloprovincialis and M. edulis in Australia, New Zealand, and Chile (Westfall and Gardner 2010, cited in NEMESIS 2015; Colgan and Middlefart 2011, cited in NEMESIS 2015). Two forms of M.g.: northern form is native to the Mediterranean Sea and western Europe; southern form is found on the coasts of Argentina, Chile, New Zealand, Australia and some islands such as the Kerguelens and Falklands (McDonald et al. 1991, cited in Elliot et al. 2008; Daguin and Borsa 1999, cited in Elliot et al. 2008; Hilbish et al. 2000, cited in Elliot et al. 2008) In transitional zones, invaded regions, and natural ecological boundaries, molecular methods have found hybrids of two or more species of M. edulis, M. galloprovincialis, and M. trossulus (NEMESIS 2015). Hybrid zones between M.g. and M. trossulus exist in the North Pacific in Japan, California, and possibly East Asia. A hybrid zone between M.g., M.t., and M. edulis exists in Puget Sound. Hybrid zones between M.g. and M.e. exist in the Northeast Atlantic, particularly in England and France (many authors, cited in Braby & Somero 2006)

Non-native Distribution

Invasion History:

Yes (NEMESIS 2015)

Non-native Region:

Northwest Atlantic, East Tropical Atlantic, Southern Africa, Magellanic, Southern Australia and New Zealand, Northeast Pacific, Northwest Pacific, Central Indo-Pacific, Eastern Indo-Pacific

Invasion Propens:

CONFLICT: Magellanic, Southern Australia and New Zealand Tropical Atlantic Coast of Africa from Gabon to South Africa (NEMESIS 2015) *Introduced Temperate Southern Africa Coast of Africa from Gabon to South Africa and the South African coast (NEMESIS 2015) *Introduced Southern Africa (Wilkins 1983, cited in Wonham 2004; Grant & Cherry 1985, cited in Wonham 2004; Lee & Morton 1985, cited in Wonham 2004; McDonald & Koehn 1988, cited in Wonham 2004; Inoue et al. 1997, cited in Wonham 2004; Sanjuan et al. 1997, cited in Wonham 2004; Daguin & Borsa 2000, cited in Wonham 2004) *Introduced Temperate South America Chile (NEMESIS 2015) *Introduced Argentina and Magellanic region (NEMESIS 2015) *Cryptogenic Temperate Australasia Southeastern Australia (NEMESIS 2015) *Introduced Southern New Zealand (NEMESIS 2015) *Cryptogenic NOTE: NZ and Australia populations could be a native sub-species (NEMESIS 2015). Temperate Northern Atlantic On the east coast, M. galloprovincialis is found at least in Halifax Harbour in Nova Scotia (2007-2009; Sylvester et al. 2011, cited in NEMESIS 2015); molecular surveys not yet complete. *Introduced Temperate Northern Pacific On the west coast of north America: ranges from Sayward, BC (50° 23’ 31 N; Shields et al. 2010, cited in NEMESIS 2015) to Punta La Mina del Fraile, Baja California, Mexico (31.2⁰N, Curiel-Ramirez and Caceres-Martinez 2004, cited in NEMESIS 2015). *Introduced In the northwest pacific, M. galloprovincialis has been found in south and central Japan (Wilkins et al. 1979, cited in NEMESIS 2015; Inoue et al. 1997, cited in NEMESIS 2015; Kurihara et al. 2009, cited in NEMESIS 2015, Iwasaki et al. 2004), the Sea of Japan (Iwasaki et al. 2004, Iwasaki 2006, cited in NEMESIS 2015) *Introduced [Northwest Pacific] Peter the Great Bay (the Sea of Japan); Zarubino; Kievka Bay (Kartavtsev et al. 2014) *Introduced Since the record from Hyogo Port in 1932, M. g. expanded its distribution along the Pacific coast from Kamaishi, north Japan, to Bungo, east Kyushu, in four years. (Uchihashi 1939) South and central Puget sound and in the Strait of Juan de Fuca (Anderson et al. 2002, cited in Wonham 2004; Wonham 2004) *Non-native; Invader Spans the west coast of NA from BC to Mexico (Wonham 2004) *Non-native; Invader; Established No M.g. present in Whidbey Basin, low frequencies in the main basin, and many M.g, in sheltered bays of Puget Sound such as Dyes Inlet, Quartermaster Harbor, Totten Inlet, and Oakland Bay. (Elliot et al. 2008) *Non-native California; northwest Pacific (Wilkins 1983, cited in Wonham 2004; Grant & Cherry 1985, cited in Wonham 2004; Lee & Morton 1985, cited in Wonham 2004; McDonald & Koehn 1988, cited in Wonham 2004; Inoue et al. 1997, cited in Wonham 2004; Sanjuan et al. 1997, cited in Wonham 2004; Daguin & Borsa 2000, cited in Wonham 2004) *Introduced Central Indo-Pacific Hong Kong (Lee and Morton 1985, cited in NEMESIS 2015) *Introduced Eastern Indo-Pacific Found in Pearl Harbor of Hawaii (1998; Apte et al. 2000, cited in NEMESIS 2015). *FAILED TO ESTABLISH Uncertain realm NOTE: Australia populations could be a native sub-species (NEMESIS 2015).

Status Date Non-native:

[Japan] 2006 (Kurihara et al. 2009, cited in NEMESIS 2015; Brannock et al. 2010, cited in NEMESIS 2015) [West coast of North America] 2006 (Shields et al. 2008, cited in NEMESIS 2015) [Hawaii] 1998 (NEMESIS 2015) Puget Sound: 2000-2004 (Elliot et al. 2008) 2000s (Iwasaki et al. 2004) 2004-2005 in Tokyo Bay. (Horikoshi & Okamoto 2007) 2006-2010 in Osaka Bay. (Association for the Research of Littoral Organisms in Osaka Bay 2012)

Vectors and Spread

Initial Vector:

Ballast water, Hull fouling (not specified), Hull fouling (military), Aquaculture and fisheries, Natural dispersal, see details

Second Vector:

Ballast water, Natural dispersal, see details

Vector Details:

CONFLICT: Fisheries intentional as a vector may be improbable because there is no aquaculture that involves M. galloprovincialis in Japan (Otani personal com.) Introduction vector [Japan]: Hull fouling (not specified), ballast water, fisheries intentional, natural dispersal (NEMESIS 2015). Introduction vector [North America]: Hull fouling (not specified) (Suchanek et al. 1997; NEMESIS 2015), ballast water (Suchanek et al. 1997; NEMESIS 2015), natural dispersal (Suchanek et al. 1997; NEMESIS 2015), fisheries accidental (not oyster) (NEMESIS 2015). Aquaculture (Anderson et al. 2002, cited in Hilbish et al. 2010; Elliot et al. 2008; Shields et al. 2010). Introduction vector [Hawaii]: Hull fouling (Military) (Apte et al. 2000, cited in NEMESIS 2015) Secondary vector [North America]: pelagic larvae may travel over 200km through natural dispersal (Suchanek et al. 1997). Ballast water (Geller et al. 1994, cited in Hilbish et al. 2010) Secondary vector [South Africa]: introduced from the west coast to the south coast for mariculture (Branch & Steffani 2004) Hull fouling (Otani 2004) RELATED: Introduction vector and secondary vector [North America] [Mytilus spp.] hull fouling on recreational boats (Clarke Murray et al. 2011).

Spread Rate:

[South Africa] 115 km/year to the north, 25 km/year to the south (Benguela Current flows to the north) (Branch & Steffani 2004) [Japan] Mean speed for the dispersion at all around Japan coast is 10.9km/year (Iwasaki & Kinoshita 2004)

Date First Observed in Japan:

CONFLICT Kobe, Japan in 1934 (Kanamura 1935, cited in NEMESIS 2015) 1932 in the Seto Inland Sea (Lee II & Reusser 2012) Hyogo Port which is a part of Kobe Port in 1932 (Uchihashi 1939) The specimen indicates that M. g. has already invaded to Hiroshima in Seto Inland Sea by 1934 at the latest. (Ishida et al. 2005)

Date First Observed on West coast North America:

Noted in 1940s in southern California (Coe 1946, cited in NEMESIS 2015). Lee II & Reusser (2012) give 1947 as the earliest date. Noted in 1998 in Oahu (Apte et al. 2000, cited in NEMESIS 2015; Lee II & Reusser 2012)

Impacts

Impact in Japan:

Since 1950's, the distribution of Chthamalus challengeri, Fistulobalanus albicostatus, Septifer variegatus, Crassostrea gigas and Sargassum fusifome was modified by the cover of M. galloprovincialis at the intertidal zone in Matsushima Bay, north Japan (Hoshiai, T (1958, 1959, 1961, 1964) Hybridization: M. galloprovincialis comprised more than 50% of sampled mussels in 2006 at 6 of 8 sites on the north shore of Hokkaido (Brannock & hilbish 2010, cited in NEMESIS 2015). Hybridization ranged from 0 to 71% at 8 sites on the north shore of Hokkaido; however no evidence for introgression (Brannock & Hilbish 2010, cited in NEMESIS 2015). Competition: At 6 of 8 sites surveyed, M.g. comprised 50% of sampled mussels, displacing the once dominant M. trossulus (Brannock & Hilbish 2010, cited in NEMESIS 2015). Population sizes of Crassostrea gigas, Septifer virgatus, Chthamalus challengeri, and the seaweed Sargassum fusiformis have also been reduced (Chavanich et al. 2010, cited in NEMESIS 2015). Habitat change: hypoxic conditions have been created by the mass deposition of pseudofeces in the sediment (Chavanich et al. 2010, cited in NEMESIS 2015). To combat increased amounts of hull fouling, toxic fouling paint use, such as TBT, was also increased (Chavanich et al. 2010, cited in NEMESIS 2015). Industry: M.g. has caused a 35% decrease in revenue (estimated at five handred million yen) in oyster culture (Arakawa 1974; Chavanich et al. 2010, cited in NEMESIS 2015), but is itself cultured (Inoue et al. 1997, cited in NEMESIS 2015). High costs are associated with the cleaning of M.g. from power plants (Iwasaki 2006, cited in NEMESIS 2015)

Global Impact:

[West coast of North America] Competition: In the Strait of Georgia and Puget Sound, 4 of 70 sites had M.g. comprise greater than 25% of mussel populations (Wonham 2004, cited in NEMESIS 2015). In Puget Sound 6 of 29 sites had greater than 25% M.g. (Elliott et al. 2008, cited in NEMESIS 2015). [West coast of North America] Hybridization: frequency of M. galloprovincialis X M. trossulus hybrids occasionally exceeds 10% near marinas, shipping harbors, and aquaculture sites in the Strait of Georgia and Puget Sound, (11 of ~70 BC-Puget Sound sites listed, Wonham et al. 2004, cited in NEMESIS 2015; 15 of 29 Puget Sound sites listed by Elliott et al. 2008, cited in NEMESIS 2015; 1 of 20 Strait of Georgia sites, sampled by Shields et al. 2010, cited in NEMESIS 2015). Suchanek et al. (1997) found hybrids with M. trossulus in Washington and California (not found in Japan or Alaska). In San Francisco Bay, 55% of samples were hybrids (Suchanek et al. 1997). In Palo Alto, 14% of samples in 1990 were F1 hybrids, increasing to 20% in 1996; 14% were backcrosses to M.g. in 1990, increasing to 30% in 1996 (Suchanek et al. 1997). Genetic pollution through hybridization with native mussel species (Hilbish et al. 2010). [West coast of North America] Competition: Changes the structure of marine communities; may cause local extirpation of native species (Branch & Steffani 2004, cited in Hilbish et al. 2010; Robinson et al. 2005, cited in Hilbish et al. 2010) [South Africa] competition: causes mass mortality of Ovalipes trimaculatus, by settling on its carapace and eye stalks. Increased abundance of a predatory whelk (Nucella cingulata), and the African black oystercatcher (Haematopus moquini), which also has switched its prey to predominantly M.g. (Branch & Steffani 2004)

Tolerences

Native Temperature Regime:

See details

Native Temperature Range:

[NW Spain] Winter low: 10-12ºC, summer high: 18-20ºC (Caceres-Martınez & Figueras 1998) [Southern England] 6.3 to 14.6ºC (Southward 1958, cited in Geller et al. 1994)

Non-native Temperature Regime:

Cold water, Cool temperate, Mild temperate, Warm temperate, Subtripical, Tropical, See details

Non-native Temperature Range:

[Japan] Low: 7.73ºC; high: 27.08ºC (Suchanek et al. 1997). [West coast of north America] Low: 8.96ºC; high: 17.69ºC (Suchanek et al. 1997). [Japan] High: 29ºC (Kazihara 1964). Cold water, Cool temperate, Mild temperate, Warm temperate, Subtripical, Tropical (M. Otani, pers. comm.)

Native Salinity Regime:

Euhaline

Native Salinity Range:

[NW Spain] 31 - 36 psu (Caceres-Martınez & Figueras 1998)

Non-native Salinity Regime:

Mesohaline, Poyhaline, Euhaline

Temperature Regime Survival:

Cold water, Cool temperate, Mild temperate, Warm temperate, Subtropical, Tropical

Temperature Range Survival:

Cold temperate-Warm temperate (NEMESIS 2015) Maximum temperature: 31ºC (reported by authors cited by Hicks and McMahon (2002) and Schneider (2008) in NEMESIS 2015) 3.109°C to 12.370°C (OBIS, 2016) Cold temperate - Tropical (Iwasaki et al. 2004) [Japan] Adult of M. g. cannot survive several days of higher temperature over 29 ºC to 30 ºC at Uchiura Bay, Fukui pref. (Yasuda & Hibino 1986) Cold water (M. Otani, pers. comm.)

Temperature Regime Reproduction:

See details

Temperature Range Reproduction:

VARIABILITY Native range [Bay of Biscay]: Mussel larvae developed well at 15 - 25ºC (His et al. 1989, cited in NEMESIS 2015) [Venice lagoon] 7-8ºC (Lubet 1978, cited in Da Ros et al. 1985) to a maximum of 20ºC (Da Ros et al. 1985) [South Spain] maximum temperature for the culture of M.g. larvae is around 24ºC (Sanchez-Lazo & Martinez-Pita 2012) [Japan] Spawning occurs at the sea temperature 5-25 ºC at Nyuura Bay, Fukui pref. (Yasuda 1967)

Salinity Regime Survival:

Oligohaline, Mesohaline, Polyhaline, Euhaline

Salinity Range Survival:

[Not specified] Mesohaline (5-18 PSU), Polyhaline (18-30 PSU), Euhaline (30-40 PSU) (NEMESIS 2015). [Not specified] Adults can tolerate salinities as low as 10 PSU (His et al. 1989, cited in NEMESIS 2015). Populations in the Black Sea (~18 PSU) may have lower salinity tolerances (NEMESIS 2015). [Not specified] Observed salinity tolerance of 18 - 39.42 psu (Lee II & Reusser 2012) [Not specified] Optimal specific gravity for incubation is from 1.014 to 1.0256 (Uchihashi 1951)

Salintiy Regime Reproduction:

Polyhaline, Euhaline

Salinity Range Reproduction:

Native range [Bay of Biscay]: Mussel larvae developed well at 20-35 PSU, with a maximum of 38 PSU (His et al. 1989, cited in NEMESIS 2015) M.g. require at least 20 PSU for successful larval development (His et al. 1989, cited in NEMESIS 2015). Populations in the Black Sea (~18 PSU) may have lower salinity tolerances (NEMESIS 2015).

Depth Regime:

Shallow subtidal, Low intertidal, Mid intertidal

Depth Range:

Shallow subtidal, low- and mid intertidal zones (NEMESIS 2015). [Japan] Near mean sea level to the depth of 20-30 m at the Seto Inland Sea (Inaba 1982, Hoshomi 1978).

Non-native Salinity Range:

Native Abundance:

Common

Reproduction

Fertilization Mode:

external

Reproduction Mode:

Gonochoristic/ dioecious

Spawning Type:

None

Development Mode:

Planktonic larva (type unspecified)

Asexual Reproduction:

Does not reproduce asexually

Reproduction Details:

VARIABILITY (dispersal distance) Reproduction: Separate sexes (NEMESIS 2015). Broadcast spawning (Satuito et al. 1994, cited in NEMESIS 2015; Suchanek et al. 1997; Caceres-Martinez and Figueras 1998, cited in NEMESIS 2015; Semenikhina et al. 2008, cited in NEMESIS 2015; Shields et al. 2010; Lopez-Duarte et al. 2012, cited in NEMESIS 2015). Prolonged spawning season and in some regions spawning is year-round (Seed 1969, cited in NEMESIS 2015). External fertilization (Da Ros et al. 1985; NEMESIS 2015) Larvae: planktonic trochophore larva (NEMESIS 2015). Larval settlement at 330-350 µm in Pacific Russia (Semenikhina et al. 2008, cited in NEMESIS 2015). Trochophore larvae stage lasts ~72 hours (at 14ºC) (Beaumont et al. 2004). Dispersal: Larvae stay in the plankton 2 - 4 weeks (Satuito et al. 1994, cited in NEMESIS 2015; Caceres-Martinez and Figueras 1998, cited in NEMESIS 2015; Semenikhina et al. 2008, cited in NEMESIS 2015; Lopez-Duarte et al. 2012, cited in NEMESIS 2015). Larvae can be pelagic for 3+ weeks, and may travel in excess of 200 km depending on currents (Suchanek et al. 1997). Larvae on the coast of San Diego County, California, dispersed over a mean distance of 35 km, though a large proportion settled more locally, while a few (1.5%) dispersed for more than 125 km (Lopez-Duarte et al. 2012, cited in NEMESIS 2015). Larval phase may last two weeks to two months (Bayne 1965, cited in Shields et al. 2010). Larvae can disperse 30-100 km (McQuaid & Phillips 2000, cited in Shields et al. 2010; Gilg & Hilbish 2003, cited in Shields et al. 2010). Can disperse hundreds of kilometres, depending on current (Beaumont et al. 2004). Larvae transported from Japan were still viable after 13 days (Geller et al. 1994) Does not reproduce asexually (Lee II & Reusser 2012) Gonad cycles vary among mussel populations of different geographical areas (Villalba 1995) Larvae: planktonic trochophore larva (NEMESIS 2015). Larval settlement at 330-350 µm in Pacific Russia (Semenikhina et al. 2008, cited in NEMESIS 2015), 220-319 µm in Tokyo Bay (Kajihara & Yoo 1980). Trochophore larvae stage lasts ~72 hours (at 14ºC) (Beaumont et al. 2004). Dispersal: Larvae stay in the plankton 2 - 4 weeks (Satuito et al 1994, cited in NEMESIS 2015; Caceres-Martinez and Figueras 1998, cited in NEMESIS 2015; Semenikhina et al. 2008, cited in NEMESIS 2015; Lopez-Duarte et al. 2012, cited in NEMESIS 2015) and more than one month in Japan (Kajihara & Hirano (1973). Larvae can be pelagic for 3+ weeks, and may travel in excess of 200 km depending on currents (Suchanek et al. 1997). Larvae on the coast of San Diego County, California, dispersed over a mean distance of 35 km, though a large proportion settled more locally, while a few (1.5%) dispersed for more than 125 km (Lopez-Duarte et al. 2012, cited in NEMESIS 2015). Larval phase may last two weeks to two months (Bayne 1965, cited in Shields et al. 2010). Larvae can disperse 30-100 km (McQuaid & Phillips 2000, cited in Shields et al. 2010; Gilg & Hilbish 2003, cited in Shields et al. 2010). Can disperse hundreds of kilometres, depending on current (Beaumont et al. 2004). Larvae transported from Japan were still viable after 13 days (Geller et al. 1994)

Adult Mobility:

Sessile

Adult Mobility Details:

Sessile in adult form, locally mobile as juveniles (NEMESIS 2015) Dispersal by byssal drifting (Lane et al. 1985, cited in Beaumont et al. 2004) [M. coruscus] Limited mobility at the time of the old and new change of byssus was observed experimentally (Uchihashi 1951) Facultatively mobile (Species with limited mobility, in particular to repositioning themselves in response to environmental disturbances (e.g., sea anemones)) (M. Otani, pers. comm.)

Maturity Size:

Matured at 23-24mm in shell length at Kisarazu Port, Chiba prefecture, Japan (Sugiura 1959) Matured at 20mm in shell length (Kado & Hirano 1979)

Maturity Age:

one year of age or less (Seed 1969, cited in NEMESIS 2015)

Reproduction Lifespan:

NF

Longevity:

About two years in Tokyo Bay (Kajihara et al. 1978) At least four years in Seto Inland Sea. (Hoshomi 1980)

Broods per Year:

NF

Reproduction Cues:

[NW Spain] Most important exogenous factors: temperature, salinity, photoperiod and food (Caceres-Martınez & Figueras 1998) [NW Spain] Most important endogenous factors: nutrient reserves, hormonal cycles and the genotype (Caceres-Martınez & Figueras 1998) [Tasmania] Cycling ∼24 °C and ∼18 °C water hourly for 8 h daily over three consecutive days (Fearman & Moltschaniwskyj 2010) [Japan] [Mytilus edulis] artificially spawned by the cooling treatment (Akiyama 1967) RELATED: [California] [M. californianus] spawned after shock treatment (scraping or byssus puling; found effective in air and under water), being exposed to gametes from crushed gonads (most effective when both male and female gametes present); stimuli more effective when repeated; stimuli more effect when mussels are grouped instead of isolated; temperature stimuli were inconclusive. Wave action, exposure to air, or pull of a starfish hypothesized to stimulate spawning (Young 1945)

Reproduction Time:

Year-round (NEMESIS 2015) [Venice lagoon] September to May (several spawnings); possible spawning in summer (Da Ros et al. 1985) [NW Spain] Some spawning make occur in late winter, massive spawning events in the spring (with several spawns until early summer) (Caceres-Martınez & Figueras 1998) [Southern bays of Galicia, Spain] One spawn between August and September, two mass spawnings in spring. Some spawning in summer (Villalba 1995). [Lorbe, Spain] mass spawning took place between June and July (Villalba 1995). [Japan] Spawing: From January to July at Nyuura Bay, Fukui pref., Japan (Yasuda 1967), from October to March at Yokosuka Port and Otsuchi Bay, Iwate pref., November to Feburuary in Urasoko Bay, Fukui pref. and Omura Bay, Nagasaki pref. (Kajihara & Yoo 1983), from October to May in Tokyo Bay (Sugiura 1959), from December to April in Seto Inland Sea and Sasebo Bay, Nagasaki pref. (Uchihashi 1951, Kazihara 1964).

Fecundity:

[Venice lagoon] Several spawnings; spawning mussels are always present in the population (maximum in winter and minimum in summer) (Da Ros et al. 1985) [Tasmania] Individual fecundity of females that spawned ranged from 4900 to 22 million oocytes per female (i.e. highly variable), even within water temperature groups, but 47% of fertilized oocytes developed to D-veliger stage (Fearman & Moltschaniwskyj 2010) [Japan] Brooding number: between six million to 12 million in an individual of 5cm shell length (Kado & Hirano 1979). RELATED: [Mytilus spp., location not specified] High (Bayne 1965, cited in Shields et al. 2010)

Egg Size:

[Tasmania] Vitellogenic oocyte size varies with temperature: >55 μm were more frequent at 7 °C 50–55 μm were more frequent at 7 °C and 10 °C 40–45 μm were more frequent at 19 °C 35–40 μm were more frequent at 13 °C and 16 °C (Fearman & Moltschaniwskyj 2010) [Japan] 70 μm (Tamura 1960)

Egg Duration:

[Tasmania] < 48 hours (Fearman & Moltschaniwskyj 2010) [Japan] 20-24 hours (Yamamoto 1973)

Early Life Growth Rate:

[South Spain] Larvae grew at 6.65±0.2 um/day at 17ºC, 9.06±1.2 um/day at 20ºC, and 8.71±0.4 um/day at 24ºC (Sanchez-Lazo & Martinez-Pita 2012) [South Spain] M.g. larvae reached metamorphosis 6 days earlier with a rise of 8ºC in the culturing temperature (12 to 20ºC) (Ruiz et al. (2008, cited in Sanchez-Lazo & Martinez-Pita 2012) [Japan] It is estimated that larvae grew to pediveliger (220-260 μm) in 3-4 days in Tokyo Bay (Kajihara & Hayashi 1980) After settlement at 0.3mm in shell height, it grows up to 1mm in a week, up to about 2cm in two months and about 6-7cm in a year. (Koganezawa 1972 )

Adult Growth Rate:

[West coast of South Africa] growth varied between ~0.005 and ~0.045 mm/day at upwelling sites, and between ~0 and ~0.045mm/day at downstream sites (Xavier et al. 2007) [Japan] M. g. inhabits at upper intertidal grows to 20 mm in length in half year, 40 mm in a year at the shore of Suma, Kobe City. (Hoshomi 1966) M. g. grows up to 50-60 mm in a year and up to 90 mm in two years. Their growth delays in a crowded population. (Ohshima et al. ed. 1965)

Population Growth Rate:

NF

Population Variablity:

[West coast of North America] Some populations, such as that north of Monterey Bay, appear to fluctuate with oceanographic cycles. This population increased rapidly in the 1990s, but was decreasing during the 2005-2007 sampling (it is a cold phase of the PDO) (Hilbish et al. 2010). [West coast of North America] Between Monterey Bay and Humboldt Bay, M.g. and its hybrids were dominant from 1990 - 1995 (Sarver and Foltz 1993, cited in NEMESIS 2015; Suchanek et al. 1997, cited in NEMESIS 2015; Rawson et al. 1999, cited in NEMESIS 2015), comprising 40-75% of the mussels sampled, but decreased after 2000, being only ~2% of the mussels sampled in 2005-2007 (Braby and Somero 2006, cited in NEMESIS 2015; Hilbish et al. 2010, cited in NEMESIS 2015). M.g. declined within Humboldt Bay between 1995 and 2005-2007 sampling; absent from sites in northern California (Hilbish et al. 2010). Reduced abundance of M.g, relative to M. trossulus, in central California during 2005-2007 sampling (Hilbish et al. 2010). Sites south of Monterey remained dominated by M.g. in 2005-2007 sampling (Hilbish et al. 2010) [Japan] It is presumed that M. g. had already invaded Kobe Port and Tokyo Port around 1930 and expanded their distribution at the Pacific Coast from Honshu to Kyushu, including Seto Inland Sea from the middle to the late 1930s. Their distribution continued to expand and the present distribution was built by the end of 1950s. (Ishida et al. 2005) [Japan] Biomass of M. g. has a positive correlation with dissolved oxygen showing mass mortality with hypoxia at the inner part of Dokai Bay, Kitakyushu City, in summer. (Kohama et al. 2001) M. g. population living on exposed surfaces grow vigrously, but are short lived, while those on protected surfaces are not so flourishing, but they seem to possess a long life span (at northern coast of Osaka Bay) (Hoshomi 1977). Seven quadrat surveys during 1978–2006 on 19 rocky shores (26.6–41.4 N) in Japan showed unexpected results. Density of M. galloprovincialis decreased on 89% of the shores where this mussel had previously been found (Kurihara and Kosuge 2010)

Habitat

Ecosystem:

Sediment subtidal, Rocky intertidal, Rocky subtidal, Mussel reef, Fouling, Other

Habitat Type:

Epibenthic

Substrate:

Mud, Sand, Rock, Biogenic, Artificial substrate

Exposure:

Exposed, Semi-exposed, Protected, Very protected

Habitat Expansion:

NF

Habitat Details:

[Not specified] Lives on coarse woody debris, marinas and docks, rocks, vessel hulls, logs, structures, vegetation (NEMESIS 2015). [Not specified] Epibenthic (NEMESIS 2015). [Puget Sound, Washington] On pilings (north-facing side; no mussels found on south-facing side), M.g, were observed approximately 1 - 3m above MLLW (Elliot et al. 2008). Found in subtidal, upper-, mid- and lower intertidal (Elliot et al. 2008) [Puget Sound, Washington] More abundant farther from surface: lower sides and bottoms of docks (Elliot et al. 2008). [Puget Sound, Washington] Highest abundance on docks; lowest in intertidal zone (Elliot et al. 2008) [Canadian Maritimes] Found at locations subject to high wave action (exposed and intertidal) (Riginos & Cuggingham 2005) [Newfoundland] Found subtidally, with increased frequency with higher wave exposure (Comesana et al. 1999, cited in Riginos & Cuggingham 2005) [Not specified] Observed on mud, sand. Preferred habitat includes rock, other mussels, pilings, hulls and ballast tanks, and other artificial substrates (Lee II & Reusser 2012). In Ireland, SW England, NE England and Scotland, M. galloprovincialis is dominant in exposed localities (Gosling & Wilkins 1981, cited in Skibinski et al. 1983) [Ireland and United Kingdom] Found in higher frequencies in exposed than in sheltered localities (Skibinski et al. 1983) [West coast of South Africa] recruitment and growth are greatest on wave-exposed, as opposed to sheltered shores or shores exposed to extreme waves (Steffani & Branch 2004; Branch & Steffani 2004, cited in Xavier et al. 2007). [Japan] M. g. is one of predominant species on the artificial structures such as sea wall, jetty, block mound, intake pipe of nuclear and/or thermal power plant (Yamochi et al. 1995) M. g. is not distributed at river mouth influenced by fresh water. Dense population is developed at the artificial structures with relatively strong wave action in Osaka Bay (Yamochi et al. 1995) Protected, very protected (M. Otani, pers. comm.)

Trophic Level:

Suspension feeder

Trophic Details:

Suspension feeder on plankton (NEMESIS 2015)

Forage Mode:

See details

Forage Details:

Non-selective (M. Otani, pers. comm.) RELATED: [Mytilus edulis] experiments indicate that this species can modulate the retention efficiency of food particle size in relation to resources availability (Strohmeier et al. 2012)

Natural Control:

PREDATION [Predation] [west coast of South Africa] Nucella cingulata can consume 0.08 mussels per whelk per day, with a preferred M.g. size of 5-20mm (Wickens and Griffiths 1985, cited in Branch & Steffani 2004); however, predation has more of an effect in the intertidal (50-90% of losses) than in the subtidal (<3% of losses) (Griffiths & Hockey 1987, cited in Branch & Steffani 2004) [Predation] [California] Eaten by Nucella spp. (Braby & Somero 2006) PARASITES [Parasites] Gonad and storage tissue development can be inhibited by the protistan Murteilia refringens or the trematode Proctoeces maculatus (Martinez 1972, cited in Villalba 1995; Villalba et al. 1993, cited in Villalba 1995) [Parasites] Few or no parasites in native Spain and France (many authors, cited in Branch & Steffani 2004) and invaded South Africa (Calvo-Ugarteburu & McQuaid 1998a, cited in Branch & Steffani 2004) [Parasites] Endolithic cyanophyte Mastigocoleus sp. and the lichen Pyrenocolema sp. (Mastigocoleus in particular) bore into the shell, causing weakness (Webb and Korrubel 1994, cited in Branch & Steffani 2004). [Parasites] [Northern Spain] Rickettsiae caused slight hyperplasia of the infected epithelial cells and was negatively correlated with condition; a coccidian parasite caused slight hyperplasia of the infected epithelial cells; the microsporidian Steinhausia mytilovum caused a strong haemocyte infiltration response; the ascetosporidian Marteilia sp. was found in the epithelial cells of the stomach, where it was associated with damaged tissue, and in the epithelial cells of the digestive tubules, also impaired gonadal development in heavily infected individuals; the "redworm" copepod Mytilicola intestinalis was commonly found and caused damage to the epithelial cells of the intestine and caused a haemocytic infiltration. Parasites with no visible effect on M.g. included: a gill ciliate (similar to Ancistrum mytili); intracellular ciliates (which were also found in mussels in eastern Canada); the digenean trematode Proctoeces maculatus (in the digestive gland); a copepod was found buried in the peripheral connective tissue of the digestive gland and elicits a strong haemocytic encapsulation response, but no change to mussel condition (Figueras et al. 1991) [Parasites] By the parasitism of Pinnnotheres sinensis is presumed to cause a reduction of the growth of tha fresh portion of M. g. in Tanabe Bay, Wakayama prefecture (Ohgaki 1997) [Parasites] Pseudomyicola spinosus was in mantle cavity, esophagus, and stomachof M. edulis from Sado Island and Suzu, Ishikawa prefecture (Ho 1980) [Parasities] It was found that Eutima japonica was parasitic on M. galloprovincialis at a rate of more than 90% of collected specimens at Funka Bay, Hokkaido (Baba et al. 2009) [Parasities] It was found that Eutima japonica was parasitic on M. galloprovincialis. (Kubota 2012) [Parasities] Pinnotheres sinensis was parasitic at a rate of more than 50% in the mantle cavity of M. g. at Tanabe Bay, Wakayama prefecture (Ohgaki 1997) DISEASE [Disease] [west coast of South Africa] Immune to disease (Branch & Steffani 2004) [Disease] [Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea, East Atlantic Ocean, East Pacific] suffers from haemolytic neoplasia (Many authors, cited in Ciocan & Sunila 2005) RELATED: PREDATION [Mytilus sp.] [Predation] Larval phase is vulnerable to predation (Beaumont et al. 2004) [Mytilus spp.] [Predation] Eaten by sea stars (Young 1945, Dowd & Somero 2013) [Mytilus sp.] [Predation] [west coast of South Africa] Major intertidal predators are whelks (Nucella species) and birds (mainly Haematopus moquini). M.g. is able to escape these predators when large (Griffiths & Hockey 1987, cited in Xavier et al. 2007; Branch & Steffani 2004, cited in Xavier et al. 2007)

Associated Species:

PARASITES [Parasites] Gonad and storage tissue development can be inhibited by the protistan Murteilia refringens or the trematode Proctoeces maculatus (Martinez 1972, cited in Villalba 1995; Villalba et al. 1993, cited in Villalba 1995) [Parasites] Endolithic cyanophyte Mastigocoleus sp. and the lichen Pyrenocolema sp. (Mastigocoleus in particular) bore into the shell, causing weakness (Webb and Korrubel 1994, cited in Branch & Steffani 2004). [Parasites] [Northern Spain] Rickettsiae caused slight hyperplasia of the infected epithelial cells and was negatively correlated with condition; a coccidian parasite caused slight hyperplasia of the infected epithelial cells; the microsporidian Steinhausia mytilovum caused a strong haemocyte infiltration response; the ascetosporidian Marteilia sp. was found in the epithelial cells of the stomach, where it was associated with damaged tissue, and in the epithelial cells of the digestive tubules, also impaired gonadal development in heavily infected individuals; the "redworm" copepod Mytilicola intestinalis was commonly found and caused damage to the epithelial cells of the intestine and caused a haemocytic infiltration. Parasites with no visible effect on M.g. included: a gill ciliate (similar to Ancistrum mytili); intracellular ciliates (which were also found in mussels in eastern Canada); the digenean trematode Proctoeces maculatus (in the digestive gland); a copepod was found buried in the peripheral connective tissue of the digestive gland and elicits a strong haemocytic encapsulation response, but no change to mussel condition (Figueras et al. 1991) [Parasites] By the parasitism of Pinnnotheres sinensis is presumed to cause a reduction of the growth of tha fresh portion of M. g. in Tanabe Bay, Wakayama prefecture (Ohgaki 1997) [Parasites] Pseudomyicola spinosus was in mantle cavity, esophagus, and stomachof M. edulis from Sado Island and Suzu, Ishikawa prefecture (Ho 1980) [Parasities] It was found that Eutima japonica was parasitic on M. galloprovincialis at a rate of more than 90% of collected specimens at Funka Bay, Hokkaido (Baba et al. 2009) [Parasities] It was found that Eutima japonica was parasitic on M. galloprovincialis. (Kubota 2012) [Parasities] Pinnotheres sinensis was parasitic at a rate of more than 50% in the mantle cavity of M. g. at Tanabe Bay, Wakayama prefecture (Ohgaki 1997) RELATED: TRAVELLERS [Mytilus spp.] [Travellers] Barnacles, hydroids, bryozoans, ascidians, etc. attach to the outside of mussel shells (Kozloff 1993)

References and Notes

References:

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Literature:

Substantial scientific information; non-peer-reviewed information; data specific to the region; supported by recent data (within the last 10 years) or research

Notes:

NA