Gromia oviformis

Overview

Scientific Name: Gromia oviformis

Phylum: Cercozoa

Class: Gromiidea

Order: Gromiida

Family: Gromiidae

Genus: Gromia

Species:

oviformis [Describe here as A. iricolor]

Native Distribution

Origin Realm:

Temperate Northern Atlantic, Tropical Atlantic, Temperate Northern Pacific, Central Indo-Pacific, Western Indo-Pacific, Temperate Australasia, Southern Ocean

Native Region:

Origin Location:

Temperate Northern Atlantic [Canada] Newfoundland (Lackey and Lackey 1970) STATUS NOT STATED [US] Florida; New York; Maine (Klinger et al 2008; Carlton 2007; Arnold 1954; Arnold 1982; Florida Ocean Sciences Institute 1971; Alve and Goldstein 2002; OBIS 2015; Brueggeman 1998; Cohen and Chapman 2005; Gooday and Bowser 2005) STATUS NOT STATED [Sweden] Skagerrak basin, North Sea (Alve and Goldstein 2010) STATUS NOT STATED [Denmark] Sjaelland; Skagerrak basin, North Sea (OBIS 2015; Alve and Goldstein 2010) STATUS NOT STATED [Norway] Skagerrak basin, North Sea (Alve and Goldstein 2010) STATUS NOT STATED [UK] Plymouth, England; Millport, Scotland; Isles of Scilly; Strangford Lough, Northern Ireland (Hedley and Wakefield 1969; Arnold 1982; Atkinson 1970; Hedley 1958; Seed and Harris 1980) STATUS NOT STATED [Germany] Warnemunde; Baltic Sea (Jepps 1926) STATUS NOT STATED [Belgium] (OBIS 2015) STATUS NOT STATED [France] Argeles-sur-Mer; Banyuls-sur-Mer; Gulf of Lyons; English Channel; Marseilles (Arnold 1966; Jepps 1926; Longet et al 2004) STATUS NOT STATED [Portugal] Madeira (Rothe et al 2009) STATUS NOT STATED [Adriatic Sea] (Jepps 1926) STATUS NOT STATED [Tunisia] (Rothe et al 2009) STATUS NOT STATED Tunisia and Madeira (Portugal) (Burki et al. 2002) STATUS NOT STATED [Great Britain] Millport in the isle of Cumbrae, in the Firth of Clyde. (Jepps 1926) STATUS NOT STATED [Great Britain] Cawsand Bay, near Plymouth (Jepps 1926) STATUS NOT STATED [Germany] Kiel. (Möbius1888, cited in Jepps 1926) STATUS NOT STATED [France] Gulf of Lyons and along the French coast of the English Channel. (Jepps 1926) STATUS NOT STATED [Italy] Gulf of Genoa. (Gruber 1884, cited in Jepps 1926) STATUS NOT STATED Tropical Atlantic [Bermuda] (Arnold 1982) STATUS NOT STATED Temperate Northern Pacific [US] Washington; California (Klinger et al 2008; Carlton 2007; Arnold 1954; Arnold 1982; Florida Ocean Sciences Institute 1971; Alve and Goldstein 2002; OBIS 2015; Brueggeman 1998; Cohen and Chapman 2005; Gooday and Bowser 2005) STATUS NOT STATED California, USA (Loeblich & Tappan 1964) STATUS NOT STATED Central Indo-Pacific [Guam] (Nunan et al 2007) STATUS NOT STATED Guam. (Burki et al. 2002) STATUS NOT STATED Western Indo-Pacific [Réunion] Nunan et al 2007; Rothe et al 2009) STATUS NOT STATED G. o. is collected Reunion (France, Indian Ocean) (Burki et al. 2002) STATUS NOT STATED Temperate Australasia [New Zealand] Wellington (Hedley and Bertaud 1962; Arnold 1980, Brueggeman 1998; WoRMS 2015; Gooday and Bowser 2005) STATUS NOT STATED Southern Ocean [Antarctica] McMurdo Sound; South Georgia Island; Kristie Cove; Weddell Sea (Brueggeman 1998; Gooday and Bowser 2005; Gooday et al 1996; Bowser et al 1996; Karentz et al 1991; Pawlowski et al 2005; Rothe et al 2009) STATUS NOT STATED G. o. has also been reported from the Antarctic shelf (Gooday et al. 1996, cited in Burki et al. 2002) STATUS NOT STATED McMurdo Sound (Antarctica). (Burki et al. 2002) STATUS NOT STATED Uncertain realm G. oviformis is a cosmopolitan species, widely distributed in different marine habitats from polar shelves to tropical coral reefs. (Burki et al. 2002) STATUS NOT STATED

Geographic Range:

Cosmopolitan distribution (Aranda da Silva and Gooday 2009) [Eastern Pacific] New Zealand; Guam (Hedley and Bertaud 1962; Arnold 1980; Nunan et al 2007) [Western Pacific] Canada to Mexico (Arnold 1980; Klinger et al 2008; Cohen and Chapman 2005) [Western Atlantic] New York to Maine; Florida; Bermuda (Arnold 1980; OBIS 2015; Florida Ocean Sciences Institute 1971; WoRMS 2015; Alve and Goldstein 2002; Arnold 1982) [Eastern Atlantic] Sweden; Norway; Denmark; UK to Belgium; Portugal; European coasts (Arnold 1980; OBIS 2015; Hedley and Wakefield 1969; WoRMS 2015; Alve and Goldstein 2010; Rothe et al 2009) [Mediterranean Sea/ Adriatic Sea] Tunisia (Arnold 1980; Arnold 1982; Jepps 1926; Rothe et al 2009) [Indian Ocean] Réunion (Nunan et al 2007) [Antarctica] (Arnold 1980; Pawlowski et al 2005; Brueggeman 1998; Gooday and Bowser 2005; Gooday et al 1996; Bowser et al 1996; Karentz et al 1991)

General Diversity:

Likely represents a species complex around the world; cryptic speciation (Carlton 2007; Aranda da Silva and Gooday 2009; Rothe et al 2009; Rothe et al 2011) Allogromia marina may be synonym of G. oviformis (Gooday et al 1996) Closely linked to Foraminifera; sister group (Longet et al 2004; Matz et al 2008)

Non-native Distribution

Invasion History:

No records of invasion (Global Invasive Species Database 2016)

Non-native Region:

Not applicable

Invasion Propens:

Not applicable

Status Date Non-native:

Not applicable

Vectors and Spread

Initial Vector:

NF

Second Vector:

NF

Vector Details:

NF

Spread Rate:

Not applicable

Date First Observed in Japan:

NF

Date First Observed on West coast North America:

NF

Impacts

Impact in Japan:

NF

Global Impact:

NF

Tolerences

Native Temperature Regime:

Cold water, Cool temperate, Mild temperate, Warm temperate, Subtropical, Tropical

Native Temperature Range:

[Canada] Newfoundland: Water temperature ranged from 9 - 11.5°C (Lackey and Lackey 1970) [US] Florida: 21-30°C during collection years (Florida Ocean Sciences Institute 1971) [UK] Temperature ranged from 8-16°C (Myers 1943) [North Sea] 5.0-6.4 °C (Alve and Goldstein 2010) Occurs in temperate coastal waters (Gooday et al 2000) Ubiquitously distributed in environments ranging from polar shelves to tropical coral reefs (Rothe et al 2011) Cold water, Cool temperate, Mild temperate, Warm temperate, Subtropical, Tropical (M. Otani, pers. comm.)

Non-native Temperature Regime:

Not applicable

Non-native Temperature Range:

Not applicable

Native Salinity Regime:

Polyhaline, Euhaline

Native Salinity Range:

[US] Florida: 36.2-36.6%o during collection years (Florida Ocean Sciences Institute 1971) [UK] Plymouth: Salinity range was 26.6-34.9 (Myers 1943) [North Sea] 35.1 PSU (Alve and Goldstein 2010)

Non-native Salinity Regime:

Not applicable

Temperature Regime Survival:

Cold water, Cool temperate, Mild temperate, Warm temperate, Subtropical, Tropical

Temperature Range Survival:

Tolerate temperature from 0 - 30°C (Arnold 1972, cited in Aranda da Silva and Gooday 2009) Appears to tolerate a wide range of temperatures ranging from -1.86 to 30°C (Arnold 1972, cited in Rothe et al 2011) In plastic containers and kept at room temperature (18-20°C, they live for up to 6 months but do not appear to feed or grow despite being offered various flagellates and diatoms (Hedley and Wakefield 1969) Cold water, Cool temperate, Mild temperate, Warm temperate, Subtropical, Tropical (M. Otani, pers. comm.)

Temperature Regime Reproduction:

Cold water, Cool temperate, Mild temperate, Warm temperate, Subtropical, Tropical

Temperature Range Reproduction:

Cold water, Cool temperate, Mild temperate, Warm temperate, Subtropical, Tropical (M. Otani, pers. comm.)

Salinity Regime Survival:

NF

Salinity Range Survival:

NF

Salintiy Regime Reproduction:

Polyhaline, Euhaline

Salinity Range Reproduction:

NF

Depth Regime:

Mid intertidal, Lower intertidal, Shallow subtidal, Deep subtidal, Bathyal

Depth Range:

CONFLICT: Not reliably reported from depths exceeding 270m (Arnold 1972, cited in Gooday et al 1996; Gooday et al 2000; Rothe et al 2011), but also noted deeper than that depth (see below) Middle to low intertidal zone and subtidal waters (Arnold 1980) Coastal, intertidal and sublittoral waters (Aranda da Silva and Gooday 2009) 110-140m were within known bathymetric range of species (Arnold 1972, cited in Aranda da Silva and Gooday 2009) Shallow water species (Hedley and Wakefield 1969; Aranda da Silva and Gooday 2009) It is abundant in the intertidal zone of rocky shores. (Arnold 1972, cited in Burki et al. 2002) It is found on the weed in coralline pools, on Cladophora, on the walls of rock crevices, and on other solid objects between tide-marks and to depths of a few fathoms. (Jepps 1926) Dredged from 5-8m (Arnold 1966) Collected at 19 and 36m; Mid to Low Tide (Atkinson 1970) Collected at 25-28m deep sites (Gooday et al 1996) Not reliably reported from depths exceeding 270m (Arnold 1972, cited in Gooday et al 1996; Gooday et al 2000; Rothe et al 2011) Reported to 3000 fathoms (5400m) (Jones 1994, cited in Holbourn et al 2013) Intertidal zone to 366 meters (Brueggeman 1998)

Non-native Salinity Range:

Native Abundance:

Common, Abundant

Reproduction

Fertilization Mode:

See details

Reproduction Mode:

See details

Spawning Type:

See details

Development Mode:

See details

Asexual Reproduction:

See details

Reproduction Details:

Sexual reproduction appears to be restricted to subtidal waters, the paired tests of 'mating' animals occurring only rarely intertidally (Arnold 1980) Wall-canals in the shell may be used to allow release of gametes to the exterior (Hedley and Wakefield 1969) Paired adult shells for reproduction; after production and liberation of zygotes from the shell, specimens decompose over days, weeks or even months; shells are joined by their apertural apparatuses (Arnold 1966) Zygote formation; transformation of flattened free-moving masses of naked protoplasm into minute replicas of testate adults (Arnold 1966) Amoeboid stage seems to undergo asexual phase of life cycle (Hedley 1962, cited in Arnold 1966) Plastogamy is characteristic feature of reproduction, at least in specimens not exceeding 750μm (Arnold 1966) Flagellated bodies are gametes; fusiform zygotes before escaping from paired parental shell, develop into young embryos having radiate hyaline pseudopodia (Arnold 1966) Life cycle probably consists of an alternation between the relatively small, asexually-reproducing, naked amoeboid form and the much larger and well known spherical-to-ovoid shelled form; latter undergoes plastogamy and zygote formation to produce distinctive stellate young which upon liberation from the paired parental shells are probably transformed into naked amoeboid schizonts to complete the cycle and begin the new asexual generation (Arnold 1966) Gametogenesis, zygote formation and the development of amoeboid young having radiate pseudopodia take place within paired adult shells; amoeboid young emerge en masse from the plastogamous parents and probably develop into motile amoebae, as asexually giving rise to new spherical young that soon develop shells and mark the beginning of the sexual generation (Arnold 1966) Young escape through brood pores or by rupture of parental tests (Arnold 1966; Arnold 1982) After leaving the shell, the swarm spores swim off very actively in all directions, spreading in a little cloud a centimetre or more from the remains of the parent Gromia. May swim about for some hours if in running water but die very soon in a small drop which is not renewed (Jepps 1926) Sexual and asexual reproduction; gametogenesis, fertilisation and production of amoeboid zygotes in plastogamic pairs of adult specimens (Arnold 1966; Longet et al 2004) [Laboratory] Sporulation occurs within a few days, weeks or sometimes months after collection; occurs frequently in laboratory and occasionally seen in nature (Jepps 1926) RELATED: Gromia are milky white when filled with gametes (Carlton 2007)

Adult Mobility:

Actively mobile (Mobility is a normal part of at least part of the adult life cycle - at least in spurts. Not dependent upon distance traveled)

Adult Mobility Details:

Pseudopodia used to attach itself to substrate (Arnold 1980; Hedley 1964; Brueggeman 1998) Best collected by clipping off section of eel-grass to which it so tenaciously clings and returning both to laboratory (Arnold 1952) G. o. travels over the substratum comparatively slow with the speed of 2 mm in an hour (Dujardin 1835, cited in Jepps 1926) or about 6 mm in 26 hours. (Jepps 1926)

Maturity Size:

Commonly 1-3mm in diameter, occasionally to 5mm (Arnold 1980; Brueggeman 1998) Great intraspecific morphological diversity in shape and size, even for the same individual (Hedley 1964) Smallest measured being about 0.15mm across (Jepps 1926) RELATED: [Gromia] Up to perhaps 5mm but typically 1-2mm (Carlton 2007)

Maturity Age:

NF

Reproduction Lifespan:

NF

Longevity:

In plastic containers and kept at room temperature (18-20°C, they live for up to 6 months but do not appear to feed or grow despite being offered various flagellates and diatoms (Hedley and Wakefield 1969)

Broods per Year:

One; after sporulation only the shell and food residues remain (Jepps 1926)

Reproduction Cues:

Pairing of adults with the production of isogametes (Arnold 1966, cited in Hedley and Wakefield 1969) Pairing has been encountered only in individuals whose length did not exceed 750μm, ofttimes considerably less than this, but the spontaneous liberation of gametes by unpaired individuals of equivalent and larger size was a common springtime occurrence (Arnold 1966)

Reproduction Time:

Spontaneous liberation of games in spring (Arnold 1966)

Fecundity:

NF

Egg Size:

RELATED: Stellate embryos are 4-6μm in diameter (Arnold 1966)

Egg Duration:

NF

Early Life Growth Rate:

NF

Adult Growth Rate:

NF

Population Growth Rate:

NF

Population Variablity:

[Monterey Peninsula, US] Typically brown, Gromia may turn yellow during the spring on the Monterey Peninsula, when their test becomes filled with Monterey pine pollen (Carlton 2007) [California, US] Distinct affinity for the sponge Leuconia (Arnold 1954) [Florida, US] Reproductive mature adults were on average, much smaller than those collected from most of other areas (California, Bermuda, France, UK) (Arnold 1982) Density and morphology of G. oviformis may reflect local productivity (concentrations of organic matter in the area) (Bowser et al 1996) Size differences across geographically distant sites may be a reflection of different temperature regimes (Arnold 1972, cited in Gooday et al 2000) Morphology may differ depending on substrate attached; colour depends almost entirely on the food and other particles ingested (Aranda da Silva and Gooday 2009; Jepps 1926)

Habitat

Ecosystem:

Coastal shore, Tide flats, Sediment subtidal, SAV, Rocky intertidal, Rocky subtidal, Coralline algae, Macroalgal beds, Kelp forest, Fouling, Other

Habitat Type:

Epibenthic, Epiphytic, Epizoic, Under rock, Semi-infaunal

Substrate:

Mud, Sand, Mixed fine sediment, Rock, Hardpan, Biogenic

Exposure:

Protected, Very protected

Habitat Expansion:

NF

Habitat Details:

Common on holdfasts and bases of surfgrass and algae, on various invertebrates, including sponges (especially Leucendra heathi), hydroids, bryozoans and crabs, and in any sheltered nook or cranny (Arnold 1980; Jepps 1926) Adults often half buried in mud and debris, which is loosely cemented together, with the oral region attached firmly to the substrate (Hedley and Wakefield 1969) With seaweeds, on rock-faces and stones, or in muddy and sandy sediments (Brueggeman 1998) Shallow seagrass beds (Alve and Goldstein 2002) Weed of coralline pools on Cladophora, on the walls of rock crevices, undersurfaces of stones, holdfasts of kelp and the surface layer of sandy and muddy sediments (Aranda da Silva and Gooday 2009; Jepps 1926) Living on a variety of plant and animal substrata; mainly algal but also included tunicates, hydrozoans, decapods, sabellid polychaetes, ectoprocts and sponges (Arnold 1972, cited in Gooday and Bowser 2005) Shells made of organic material although presence of relatively large amount of organically bound iron is present (Hedley 1963) Holdfasts of Macrocystis pyrifera (Hedley and Bertaud 1962) [UK] Attached to protected rock-faces or the holdfasts of Laminaria ; on stipes of algae and occasionally on stones, red weeds and sample of bottom sediment (Hedley and Wakefield 1969; Atkinson 1970; Seed and Harris 1980) [UK] Strangford Lough: Environment where collected was exceedingly sheltered from wave action (Seed and Harris 1980) It is abundant in the intertidal zone of rocky shores, where it can be found in tufts of algae at the base of seaweeds (Arnold 1972, cited in Burki et al. 2002), or in association with tunicates (Lwoff 1925, cited in Burki et al. 2002) or sponges (Arnold 1951, cited in Burki et al. 2002). It is found on the weed in coralline pools, on Cladophora, on the walls of rock crevices, and on other solid objects between tide-marks and to depths of a few fathoms. (Jepps 1926) A fair number of Gromias were collected in a D-net from a Zostera bed in Cawsand Bay, near Plymouth, at a depth of 2-4 fathoms. (Jepps 1926) RELATED: [Gromia] Kelp holdfasts; sometimes common in algal and surface (Phyllospadix) holdfasts, among tufts of seaweed, in eelgrass roots, or on sponges, hydroids, bryozoans, oyster shells, and so forth; also found in fouling communities on marina floats and pontoons (Carlton 2007)

Trophic Level:

Deposit feeder

Trophic Details:

Eats diatoms and plant and animal debris; scavenger (Brueggeman 1998) Deposit feeder which litters the seafloor (Gooday et al 1996) Pseudopodia of G. o. engulfe all kinds of small particles and carries back towards the mouth as these retract. (Jepps 1926)

Forage Mode:

Generalist

Forage Details:

Distinct oral region; oral complexes becomes completely everted when pseudopodia are extruded (Hedley 1964) Nongranular anastomosing pseudopodial system (Hedley 1964) Pseudopodia engulf all kinds of small particles and carries it back towards the mouth as they retract (Jepps 1926) Scavenger (Brueggeman 1998)

Natural Control:

PREDATION [Predation] Found in gut contents of the fish Trematomus bernacchii (Brueggeman 1998) [Predation] Swarm spores are devoured in large numbers immediately after liberation by other protozoa, especially ciliates and small flagellates (Jepps 1926)

Associated Species:

HITCHHIKERS [Hitchhikers] Bolivina sp. were found to clustered around G. oviformis remains in isolated containers, believed to have been present as propagules and responded by growth when conditions were appropriate; believed that Bolivina sp. were present with sediment particles in the apertural region of some Gromia specimens or inside the tests (Alve and Goldstein 2002)

References and Notes

References:

Alve, E., & Goldstein, S. T. (2002). Resting stage in benthic foraminiferal propagules: a key feature for dispersal? Evidence from two shallow-water species. Journal of Micropalaeontology, 21(1), 95-96. Doi: 10.1144/jm.21.1.95. Alve, E., & Goldstein, S. T. (2010). Dispersal, survival and delayed growth of benthic foraminiferal propagules. Journal of Sea Research, 63(1), 36-51. Doi: 10.1016/j.seares.2009.09.003 Aranda da Silva, A., & Gooday, A. J. (2009). Large organic-walled Protista (Gromia) in the Arabian Sea: density, diversity, distribution and ecology. Deep-Sea Research II, 56(6-7), 422-433. Doi: 10.1016/j.dsr2.2008.12.027 Arnold, Z. M. (1954). Culture methods in the study of living foraminifera. Journal of Paleontology, 28(4), 404-416. Arnold, Z. M. (1966). Observations on the sexual generation of Gromia oviformis Dujardin. The Journal of Protozoology, 13(1), 23-27. Doi: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.1966.tb01863.x Arnold, Z. M. (1980). Foraminifera: Shelled Protozoans. In D. P. Abbott, & E. C. Haderlie (Eds.), Intertidal Invertebrates of California (pp. 9-20). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Arnold, Z. M. (1982). Shell-wall lamination in Gromia oviformis Dujardin. Journal of Foraminiferal Research, 12(4), 298-316. Doi: 10.2113/gsjfr.12.4.298 Atkinson, K. (1970). The marine flora and fauna of the Isles of Scilly Foraminifera. Journal of Natural History, 4(3), 387-398. Doi: 10.1080/00222937000770371 Bowser, S. S., Marko, M., & Bernhard, J. M. (1996). Occurrence of Gromia oviformis in McMurdo Sound. Antarctic Journal of the United States, 31, 122-124. Brueggeman, P. (1998). Underwater Field Guide to Ross Island & McMurdo Sound, Antarctica. Retrieved from: http://www.peterbrueggeman.com/nsf/fguide/protoctista.pdf Burki F, Berney C, Pawlowski J (2002) Phylogenetic position of Gromia oviformis Dujardin inferred from nuclear-encoded small subunit Ribosomal DNA. Protist, 153: 251–260. Carlton, J. T. (Ed.). (2007). The Light and Smith Manual: intertidal invertebrates from central California to Oregon. Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press. Cohen, A. N., & Chapman, J. W. (2005). Rapid Assessment Channel Survey for Exotic Species in San Francisco Bay - November 2005. Retrieved fro San Francisco Estuary Institute website: http://www.sfei.org/sites/default/files/biblio_files/No454_BI_Part3-2005_ChannelSurvey.pdf Florida Ocean Sciences Institute. (1971). Limitations and Effects of Waste Disposal on an Ocean Shelf. Retrieved from EPA website: http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=2000YER5.txt Global Invasive Species Database. http://www.issg.org/database/species/search.asp?sts=sss&st=sss&fr=1&x=20&y=7&sn=Aphelasterias+japonica&rn=&hci=-1&ei=-1&lang=EN Access date: 05-July-2016. Gooday, A. J., & Bowser, S. S. (2005). The second species of Gromia (Protista) from the deep sea: its natural history and association with the Pakistan margin oxygen minimum zone. Protist, 156(1), 113-126. Doi: 10.1016/j.protis.2004.11.002 Gooday, A. J., Bowser, S. S., & Bernhard, J. M. (1996). Benthic foraminiferal assemblages in Explorers Cove, Antarctica: A shallow-water site with deep-sea characteristics. Progress in Oceanography, 37(2), 117-166. Doi: 10.1016/S0079-6611(96)00007-9 Gooday, A. J., Bowser, S. S., Bett, B. J., & Smith, C. R. (2000). A large testate protist, Gromia sphaerica sp. nov.(Order Filosea), from the bathyal Arabian Sea. Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography, 47(1-2), 55-73. Doi: 10.1016/S0967-0645(99)00100-9 Hedley, R. H. (1958). Confusion between Gromia oviformis and Allogromia ovoidea. Nature, 182(4646), 1391-1392. Doi: 10.1038/1821391a0 Hedley, R. H. (1963). Cement and iron in the arenaceous foraminifera. Micropaleontology, 9(4), 433-441. Doi: 10.2307/1484505 Hedley, R. H. (1964). The Biology of Foraminifera. In W. J. L. Felts, & R. J. Harrison (Eds.), International Review of General and Experimental Zoology, Volume 1 (pp. 1-45). New York, NY: Academic Press . Hedley, R. H., & Bertaud, W. S. (1962). Electron-Microscopic Observations of (Sarcodina). Journal of Protozoology, 9(1), 79-87. Doi: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.1962.tb02585.x Hedley, R. H., & Wakefield, J. Sr. J. (1969). Fine Structure of Gromia oviformis (Rhizopodea: Protozoa). Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Zoology, 18(2), 69-90. Jepps MW (1926) Contribution to the Study of Gromia oviformis Dujardin. Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science 70(280): 701–719. http://paperity.org/p/46852233/memoirs-contribution-to-the-study-of-gromia-oviformis-dujardin Karentz, D., McEuen, F. S., Land, M. C., & Dunlap, W. C. (1991). Survey of mycosporine-like amino acid compounds in Antarctic marine organisms: potential protection from ultraviolet exposure. Marine Biology, 108, 157-166. Klinger, T., Gregg, R. M., Herrmann, K., Hoffman, K., Kershner, J., Coyle, J., & Fluharty, D. (2008). Assessment of Coastal Water Resources and Watershed Conditions at Olympic National Park, Washington (Natural Resource Report NPS/NRPC/WRD/NRTR-2008/068). Retrieved from: http://www.nature.nps.gov/water/nrca/assets/docs/olym_coastal.pdf Lackey, J. B., & Lackey, E. W. (1970). A late summer checklist of the marine microbiota around Logy Bay, Newfoundland. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 48(4), 789-795. Doi: 10.1139/z70-138 Loeblich AR & Tappan H (1964) Treatise on invertebrate paleontology. Part C. Rrotista 2. Moore RC (ed.). The Geological Society of America and the University of Kansas Press: 900pp. Longet, D., Burki, F., Flakowski, J., Berney, C., Polet, S., Fahrni, J., & Pawlowski, J. (2004). Multigene evidence for close evolutionary relations between Gromia and Foraminifera. Acta Protozoologica, 43(4), 303-311. Matz, M. V., Frank, T. M., Justin Marshall, N., Widder, E. A., & Johnsen, S. (2008). Giant deep-sea protist produces bilaterian-like traces. Current Biology, 18(23), 1849-184. Doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2008.10.028 Myers, E. H. (1943). Life Activities of Foraminifera in Relation to Marine Ecology. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 86(3), 439-458 Nunan, L. M., Lightner, D. V., Pantoja, C. R., Stokes, N. A., & Reece, K. S. (2007). Characterization of a rediscovered haplosporidian parasite from cultured Penaeus vannamei. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms, 74, 67-75. OBIS. (2015). Ocean Biogeographic Information System. Retrieved from http://iobis.org/mapper Pawlowski, J., Fahrni, J. F., Guiard, J., Conlan, K., Hardecker, J., Habura, A., & Bowser, S. S. (2005). Allogromiid foraminifera and gromiids from under the Ross Ice Shelf: morphological and molecular diversity. Polar Biology, 28(7), 514-522. Doi: 10.1007/s00300-005-0717-6 Rothe, N., Gooday, A. J., Cedhagen, T., Fahrni, J., Alan Hughes, J., Page, A., Pearce, R. B., & Pawlowski, J. (2009). Three new species of deep‐sea Gromia (Protista, Rhizaria) from the bathyal and abyssal Weddell Sea, Antarctica. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 157(3), 451-469. Rothe, N., Gooday, A. J., Cedhagen, T., & Hughes, J. A. (2011). Biodiversity and distribution of the genus Gromia (Protista, Rhizaria) in the deep Weddell Sea (Southern Ocean). Polar biology, 34(1), 69-81. Doi: 10.1007/s00300-010-0859-z Seed, R., & Harris, S. (1980). The epifauna of the fronds of Laminaria digitata Lamour in Strangford Lough, Northern Ireland. Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Section B: Biological, Geological, and Chemical Science, 80B, 91-106. WoRMS (2015). Gromia oviformis. Retrieved from World Register of Marine Species: http://marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=136926

Literature:

Moderate level of information; data from comparable regions or older data (more than 10 years) from the area of interest

Notes:

This animal does not fit nicely into any rhizopod order, the inclusion of it in the Testacea, where it is most frequently placed, is as unsuitable as its inclusion in the Foraminifera (Hedley 1964) A lot of information about makeup of species but not about life history/biology of species.