Crassostrea gigas

Overview

Scientific Name: Crassostrea gigas

Phylum: Mollusca

Class: Bivalvia

Order: Ostreida

Family: Ostreidae

Genus: Crassostrea

Species:

gigas (synonymized with C. angulata, and Ostrea gigas) [Describe here as A. iricolor]

Native Distribution

Origin Realm:

Temperate Northern Pacific, Central Indo-Pacific

Native Region:

Origin Location:

Temperate Northern Pacific Native to Korea (NEMESIS 2015) STATED The native range of C. gigas is from Cape Mariya (Russia) to Hong Kong (China) (Carrasco et al. 2010) STATED [Japan] Along the Japanese coast (Okutani ed. 2000), except for Okinawa Island where C. gigas is doubted to be introduced species because of the history of inoculation from Honshu (Kubo & Kurozumi 1995) Central Indo-Pacific The native range of C. gigas is from Cape Mariya (Russia) to Hong Kong (China) (Carrasco et al. 2010) STATED Native range may extend to Phillipines, Indonesia, Borneo (NEMESIS 2015) STATED Uncertain realm Native to Russia, China (NEMESIS 2015) STATED [China] Chinese coast (Zhongyan ed. 2005) STATUS NOT STATED Sumatra (NEMESIS 2015) STATED

Geographic Range:

Russia to Sumatra (NEMESIS 2015) Cape Mariya (Russia) to Hong Kong (China) (Carrasco et al. 2010) Geographic coverage: -158 -41.3000030517578, 174.300003051758 60.7000007629395 (Ocean Biogeographic Information System 2016) [Japan] From 26ºN to 43ºN at the Pacific side and to 46ºN at the Japan Sea side (Inaba 1982)

General Diversity:

Intra-specific genetic adaptation to thermal conditions: Along its native range there is a variety of thermal niches; C. gigas has evolved different strains/races to adapt to the thermal variety found along its native distribution (Andrews 1980; Shatkin et al. 1997, cited in Carrasco et al. 2010). Importing C. gigas seed pre-adapted to the thermal regime of that area poses higher risk of establishment (Andrews 1980; Diederich et al. 2005; Wang et al. 2007, cited in Carrasco et al. 2010). there are breeding programs with the goal of creating thermally resistant strains of C. gigas (MOREST project, IFREMER). Likely result: enhancing invasiveness at extreme ranges (Delaporte et al. 2007, cited in Carrasco et al. 2010) [Japan] Not known in natural condition. Because of biohazard problem, triploid oyster is cultivated barely at only Hiroshima Bay (Mori 2005)

Non-native Distribution

Invasion History:

Yes (NEMESIS 2015; Global Invasive Species Database 2015)

Non-native Region:

Northeast Pacific, Eastern Indo-Pacific, Indian Ocean, Southern Australia and New Zealand, Northeast Atlantic, Mediterranean Sea, Southeast Pacific, Magellanic, Southwest Atlantic

Invasion Propens:

Temperate Northern Pacific Introduced successfully to the northeast Pacific (US-Canada) (NEMESIS 2015) *Introduced [Canada] C. gigas has established natural populations up to 50.41 degrees N in Vancouver Island and Pacific Canada (Carrasco et al. 2010) *Introduced [United States] First collection of C. giags was 1910s at northern Pacific regions (Wonham & Carlton 2005) *Introduced Prince William Sound, AK to Newport Bay, CA. Very common in Willapa Bay, and in Departure Bay and the Georgia Strait in British Columbia (Cowles 2005) *Introduced Eastern Indo-Pacific [Hawaii] Established in Kāne‘ohe Bay (Carlton & Eldredge 2009), with "natural populations" in Kaneohe Bay and Pearl Harbor, Oahu (Bailey-Brock & Ringwood 1982, cited in Carlton & Eldredge 2009) *Introduced Western Indo-Pacific Indian Ocean (South Africa). (NEMESIS 2015) *Introduced Temperate Australasia [Australia] In the 1980s they found their way into NSW waters, where C. gigas have spread and invaded intertidal habitats of many coastal waterways. (NSW Department of Primary Indausry 2015) *Introduced Temperate Northern Atlantic Northeast Atlantic-Mediterranean (Europe) (NEMESIS 2015) *Introduced [Northern Europe] In 1964 C.gigas was first imported to Wadden Sea. In 1980's individuals were found outside hatchery in the Wadden Sea (Nehring 2003, cited in Global Invasive Species Database 2015) *Imported and established outside of culture plots Brood stock was imported from British Columbia (Canada) to France. (Goulletquer et al. 2002) *Introduced [France] First record of C. gigas was at 1966 at Marennes-Oléron (East of Bicay) (Goulletquer et al. 2002) *Introduced [England] C. gigas is distributed throughout England, Scotland and Ireland (Eno et al. 1997) *Alien, but not invasive; established [Europe] C. gigas is distributed in France, Belgium, The Netherland, Germany, Spain, Portugal, Denmark and Norway. (Eno et al. 1997) *Alien, but not invasive; established [Inoculation of oyster to US and France] Export of seed oyster of C. gigas for aquaculture from Japan began in 1923 and continued until 1978 at the Pacific Coast of US and began in 1965 and continued until 1980 in France. (Miyagi prefecture 1994) Temperate South America Southwest Atlantic (Argentina-Brazil) (NEMESIS 2015) *Introduced Satellite analysis of surface seawater temperatures potentially suitable for C. gigas; South America's geographic range: Mancora (Peru, 4.10S) to Chiloe´ Island (Chile, 42.138S) on the Pacific coast; Paranagua´ (Brazil, 25.69S) to Puerto Deseado (Argentina, 47.75) on the Atlantic coast (Carrasco et al. 2010) *Introduced Uncertain realm Southwest Pacific (Australia-New Zealand) (NEMESIS 2015) *Introduced Introduced range: Africa, The Australasia-Pacific region, Europe, and North & South America. (CIESM, 2000; AMCS Bulletin 1998; Hopkins, 2001; PSMFC, 1996; Chapman et al. 1995, cited in Global Invasive Species Database 2015) *Introduced [Alaska] At a grow-out station in southern Alaska, maturity was attained in specimens of C. gigas (56.0N, 132.8W) , (Meyers et al. 1990, cited in Carrasco et al. 2010) *not reproductive; failed introduction Other: For atmospheric temperatures, potential geographic range on the Pacific coast is Pisco (Peru,13.45S) to Valdivia (Chile,39.828S) and Chiloe Island (42.13S); Rio Grande (Brazil, 32.01S) to San Julia´n Port (Argentina, 49.30S) (2,330-km wide) on the Atlantic coast (Carrasco et al. 2010) *Introduced

Status Date Non-native:

[France] collected in 1996, 1997 and 1998 in the Bay of Brest and Marennes-Oléron (Lango-Reynoso et al. 2000) [Northern Europe] 1964: C.gigas first imported to Wadden Sea. In 1980's individuals were found outside hatchery in the Wadden Sea (Nehring 2003, cited in Global Invasive Species Database 2015) [Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii] First recorded 1939; established population. (Lee II and Reusser 2012) [Puget Sound, WA] First recorded 1875; established population. (Lee II and Reusser 2012) [Hawaii] Planted in 1926 (all died within 2 years), 1935, 1938, and 1939 (multiple authors, cited in Carlton & Eldredge 2009) [Inoculation of oyster to US and France] Export of seed oyster of C. gigas for aquaculture from Japan began in 1923 and continued until 1978 at the Pacific Coast of US and began in 1965 and continued until 1980 in France. (Miyagi prefecture 1994) [United States] First collection of C. giags was 1910s at northern pacific regions (Wonham & Carlton 2005) INTRODUCED [France] First record of C. gigas was at 1966 at Marennes-Oléron (East of Bicay) (Goulletquer et al. 2002) INTRODUCED [Australia] In the 1980s they found their way into NSW waters, where C. gigas have spread and invaded intertidal habitats of many coastal waterways. (NSW Department of Primary Indausry 2015) INTRODUCED

Vectors and Spread

Initial Vector:

Aquaculture and Fisheries

Second Vector:

Natural dispersal, hull fouling (not specified)

Vector Details:

spreads initially through aquaculture, and import of hatchery-produced seed; is a commercially important aquaculture species in many countries, like UK and France (Hopkins 2001, cited in Global Invasive Species Database 2015) Probably was introduced from France to Britain through ships' hulls (Fletcher & Manfredi 1995; Eno et al. 1997, cited in Global Invasive Species Database 2015). Natural local dispersal occurs due to planktonic larvae; free-swimming stage is about three weeks. When settling, the larvae group together and crawl around the sea floor, searching for a suitable hard substratum to which they can cement their lower shell valves (NIMPIS 2002). C. gigas can colonize many kilometres away from its parent oyster. Spat in ocean currents can spread up to 1,300 km (AMCS Bulletin 1998, cited in Global Invasive Species Database 2015 Introduced to Hawaii intentionally for aquaculture (Carlton & Eldredge 2009) [England] C. gigas arrived deliberate commercial introductions (Eno et al. 1997) [United States] Vector of C. gigas is commercial oyster (Wonham & Carlton 2005) [France] Vector is intentional introduction of C. gigas (Goulletquer et al. 2002) [Australia] Pacific Oysters were introduced deliberately into Western Australia and Tasmania in 1947, into Victoria in 1953 and into South Australia in 1969 (NSW Department of Primary Industry, accessed Aug. 2015)

Spread Rate:

[Northern Europe] 1964: C.gigas first imported to Wadden Sea. Since the 1980's, larval individuals have been spreading outside the culture plots into the Wadden Sea (Nehring 2003, cited in Global Invasive Species Database 2015) C. gigas can colonize in larval form many kilometres away from its parent oyster. Spat in ocean currents can spread up to 1,300 km (AMCS Bulletin 1998, cited in Global Invasive Species Database 2015) Non-native: [Europe] C.gigas increasing in abundance in Wadden Sea; oyster reefs likely to re-establish, at least in intertidal zone. (Nehring 2003, cited in Global Invasive Species Database 2015) [Wadden Sea] oyster beds developing into solid reefs at several sites. C. gigas expected to take over in the Wadden Sea; as an ecosystem engineer creating solid reefs and as a competitive suspension feeder. (Reise et al. 2005, cited in Global Invasive Species Database 2015)

Date First Observed in Japan:

Not Applicable

Date First Observed on West coast North America:

First record on West Coast: 1902 (NEMESIS 2015) Introduced/imported to the west coast in early 1900s for food source/aquaculture (Niesen 1997) 1910s at northern pacific regions (Wonham & Carlton 2005) but large-scale natural spawning was not seen until 1932 (Quayle 1969).

Impacts

Impact in Japan:

Aquaculture: Oyster production in Japan is largely Crassostrea gigas; hanging culture has increased production; In 1969, production was 245,458 tons (including shell) valued at 8,149 million yen (Kan-no et al. 1971) [Japan] Crassostrea gigas and C. nippona, main oyster species in shellfish aquaculture; account for 17 percent of Japan's total aquaculture production, and 8 percent of the value produced (Makina 2006) C. gigas is a well-known toxic bivalve in Japan, contains paralytic shellfish poison (PSP), a neurotoxin that can lead to poisoning and death in humans; has to be regulated; caused by accumulation of dinoflagellate in bivalve (Takatani 1997)

Global Impact:

C. gigas can exclude native intertidal species by settling in dense aggregations; can destroy habitat and water quality of bodies of water it invades by causing eutrophication. (Global Invasive Species Database 2015) [North Pacific] Superior filter feeder to Ostrea lurida; C.g less selective, and outcompetes the native oyster in growth rate. (Niesen 1997) [Australia] introduction led to the native Sydney rock oyster being partly outcompeted by C. gigas, (Goulletquer 2014) Excludes other intertidal species by limiting food/space that is available (NIMPIS 2002, cited in Global Invasive Species Database 2015). [Europe] The European oyster (Ostrea edulis) has become threatened, partially due to introduction of C. gigas (Hopkins 2001, cited in Global Invasive Species Database 2015) C. gigas can colonize many kilometres away from its parent oyster. Spat in ocean currents can spread up to 1,300 km; once settled it smothers other marine life (e.g. scallops), destroys habitat and causes eutrophication that affects water quality. threat to human safety: sharp shells cut feet/shoes (AMCS Bulletin 1998, cited in Global Invasive Species Database 2015) [Australia] C. gigas have become the dominant oyster species, displacing native species such as Sydney Rock Oysters (NSW Department of Rrimary Industry, accessed Aug. 2015) [Europe] No effects are recognised in Europe but cultivated widely as it is eaten (Eno et al. 1997) [North America] C. gigas has been known to settle in dense aggregations, excluding other intertidal species (Eno et al. 1997) [Wadden Sea] Spat of C. gigas settle on any hard substrate in the Wadden Sea, but preferentially upon wild banks of the native blue mussel (Mytilus edulis), which are currently being transformed into oyster reefs (Nehring, 2003)

Tolerences

Native Temperature Regime:

Cold water, Cool temperate, Mild temterate, Warm temperate, Subtropical, Tropical, see details

Native Temperature Range:

Native range (Russia to China) mean surface seawater temperature ranges from -1.9 to 28.9C (Carrasco et al. 2010) [Brood stage] 15ºC-30ºC (Tamura 1960) [Floating stage] 17ºC-28ºC (Koganezawa 1978, Kikuchi 1960) [After settlement] 0ºC-30ºC but the most suitable water temperature is 27ºC-28ºC (Tamura 1960) Cold water, cool water, cool temperate, mild temterate, warm temperate, subtropical, Tropical (M. Otani, pers. comm.)

Non-native Temperature Regime:

Cold water, Cool temperate, Mild temterate, Warm temperate, Subtropical, Tropical, see details

Non-native Temperature Range:

Temperatures optimal for adults are 11 to 34C. T < 3, or T > 35 are harmful (Goulletquer 2014) 3ºC-35ºC (NEMESIS 2015) Cold water, cool water, cool temperate, mild temterate, warm temperate, subtropical, Tropical (M. Otani, pers. comm.)

Native Salinity Regime:

Mesohaline, Polyhaline, Euhaline, see details

Native Salinity Range:

[Brood stage] 17.5 psu - 33.8 psu (corresponding value caliculated by a state equation of the water temperature and σt. The same applies to the following.) (Koganezawa 1978) [Floating stage] 14.7 psu - 34.3 psu (Koganezawa 1978, Sato 1960) [After settlement] 8.1 psu - 34.3 psu (Tamura 1960)

Non-native Salinity Regime:

Mesohaline, Polyhaline, Euhaline

Temperature Regime Survival:

Cold water, Cool temperate, Mild temperate, Warm temperate, Subtropical, Tropical, see details

Temperature Range Survival:

C. gigas can resist temperatures up to 35C (FAO/FIGIS 2009; Wang et al. 2007, cited in Carrasco et al. 2010) Temperatures optimal for adults are 11 to 34C. T < 3, or T > 35 are harmful (Goulletquer 2014) -1.8 to 35 (NIMPIS 2015) Broad Temperature Range: Cold temperate-Warm temperate (NEMESIS 2015) [Brood stage] 15ºC-30ºC (Tamura 1960) [Floating stage] 17ºC-28ºC (Koganezawa 1978, Kikuchi 1960) [After settlement] 0ºC-30ºC but the most suitable water temperature is 27ºC-28ºC (Tamura 1960) Cold water, Cool temperate, mild temperate, warm temperate, subtropical, tropical (M. Otani, pers. comm.)

Temperature Regime Reproduction:

Cold water, Cool temperate, Mild temperate, Warm temperate, Subtropical, Tropical, see details

Temperature Range Reproduction:

20-25 C is optimal spawning temperature for broodstock. Temp < 15, or > 31 is harmful for broodstock, unlikely to reproduce; 24-26 C is optimal egg temperature. T < 19 and T > 30 is harmful; Optimal larval temperature is 20-30 C. T < 18 and T > 30-35 is harmful (Goulletquer 2014) 15 to 34 (NIMPIS 2015) [Japan] Critical temperature of spawning is 20 - 25ºC (Miyazaki 1957) Spawning is induced at water temperature of around 20ºC at Matoya Bay, central Japan (Kawamoto 1967) Cold water, Cool temperate, mild temperate, warm temperate, subtropical, tropical (M. Otani, pers. comm.)

Salinity Regime Survival:

Mesohaline, Polyhaline, Euhaline, Hypersaline

Salinity Range Survival:

tolerates considerably lower salinity than normal sea water; i.e estuaries. (Kozloff 1983) Salinity optimal for adults: 13-29. Can survive as low as 5-10, and up to 45, though harmful. (Goulletquer 2014) *note: euryhaline species 3 to 56 (NIMPIS 2015) Broad Salinity Range: Mesohaline-Euhaline (NEMESIS 2015) Observed at 3 - 42 psu; Preferred 10 - 30 psu (Lee II and Reusser 2012) [Brood stage] 17.5 psu - 33.8 psu (corresponding value caliculated by a state equation of the water temperature and σt. The same applies to the following.) (Koganezawa 1978) [Floating stage] 14.7 psu - 34.3 psu (Koganezawa 1978, Sato 1960) [After settlement] 8.1 psu - 34.3 psu (Tamura 1960)

Salintiy Regime Reproduction:

Polyhaline, Euhaline

Salinity Range Reproduction:

Salinity optimal for egg life stage is 25-30 PSU, over 35 is harmful. Larval optimum: 30 PSU. Harmful if less than 10, or greater than 34. Broodstock optimum: 13-29 PSU, harmful if less than 5-10, or greater than 45 (Goulletque, 2014) *note: euryhaline species 10 to 42 (NIMPIS 2015) [Japan] From 6.4 psu to 34.6 psu (Yoshida 1964)

Depth Regime:

Mid intertidal, Lower intertidal, Shallow subtidal

Depth Range:

[VARIABILITY] intertidal organism; C. gigas is in direct contact with air during variable periods of the day (Carrasco et al. 2010) intertidal and shallow subtidal zones. Found to a depth of about 3 meters. (NIMPIS 2002, cited in Global Invasive Species Database 2015) -2 m minimum to 3m maximum (NIMPIS 2015) Intertidal to 6m (Cowles 2005) Tidal range: low-tide,mid-tide, sub-tidal (NIMPIS 2015) Observed at 0 - 7m ; Preferred 0 - 1m (Lee II and Reusser 2012) Bottom depth: -461 - 509 m; Sample depth 0 - 146 m (Ocean Biogeographic Information System 2016) [Japan] Lower intertidal to 20 - 30m deep at Seto Inland Sea (Inaba 1982) Juveniles mainly settle at the depth of 0-2m at Matoya Bay (Kawamoto 1967)

Non-native Salinity Range:

Native Abundance:

Abundant

Reproduction

Fertilization Mode:

external

Reproduction Mode:

Hermaphrodite/ monoecious

Spawning Type:

None

Development Mode:

Planktotrophic planktonic larva (feeding)

Asexual Reproduction:

Does not reproduce asexually

Reproduction Details:

Planktonic larvae spend approx. three weeks in a free-swimming phase. Once ready to settle, the larvae congregate and crawl over sea floor in search of a hard substratum to cement their lower shell valves to (NIMPIS 2002, cited in Global Invasive Species Database 2015) C. gigas are protandric hermaphrodites; they first spawn as male, then switch to female; exhibit external fertilization: eggs and sperm are released, where fertilization takes place in the water column; spawning occurs during summer months. The planktonic larvae feed for three-four weeks before settling as spat. small percent survive this phase. (Port Stephens Fisheries Centre 2003, cited in Global Invasive Species Database 2015) Female discharges eggs up to 12 inches from body, forming milky white clouds; male discharges sperm. Fertilization is time dependent, must occur within 10-15 hours after spawning (Prince William Sound Regional Citizens' Advisory Council 2004, cited in Global Invasive Species Database 2015) C. gigas is fertilized in seawater and after one or two hours from the fertilizing, eggs begin to divide and become a morula. Morulas develop into D-larvae in 24 hours via trochophore and veliger larval stage. About two weeks later, when D-larvae develop into the size of 300 μm, they begin to adhere to the substrata. ( Hokkaido Research Organization 2015) Does not reproduce asexually (M. Otani, pers. comm.)

Adult Mobility:

Sessile

Adult Mobility Details:

Cemented to a hard substratum (Kozloff 1983) RELATED: [Ostreidae] Pediveliger larva secretes the cement substance and adheres to the substrata firmly by its left valve. Ostreidae never moves after its settlement (Sasaki 2010)

Maturity Size:

Gonads can develop in C. g at 8 cm (National Research Council 2003, cited in NEMESIS 2015). Adult length may exceed 25cm (Kozloff 1983) [Japan] 2cm in shell length (Miyazaki 1957)

Maturity Age:

[Japan] Nine weeks after settlement (Miyazaki 1957) RELATED: [Crassostrea sp.] One year old oysters develop viable eggs and sperm (Matthiessen 2001, cited in NIMPIS 2015).

Reproduction Lifespan:

[Japan] Spawning season tends to become short in northern part with a low water temperature but to become long in southern part with a high water temperature. Spawnng in northern part may not occur every year but occurs infrequently at the year of a high water temperature (Yoshida 1964) Spawning occurs twice a year in mid-July and early August or occurs three times a year during July and August at Mangoku-ura, Miyagi prefecture (Yoshida 1964) Spawning in Ariake Bay, southern part of Japan, ranges from May to November having four major spawning periods; (a) from late June to early July, (b) mid-July, (c) from late August to early September, (d) late September (Tanaka 1954)

Longevity:

C. gigas can live up to 10 years (Port Stephens Fisheries Centre 2003, cited in Global Invasive Species Database 2015)

Broods per Year:

[Korea] spawn at least twice/year; may reduce at higher latitudes (Kang et al. 2003, cited in Walton and Gotthardt 2015)

Reproduction Cues:

Temperature: Summer spawners. 16C is the lower thermal limit for spawning in C. gigas (Mann et al. 1991; Ruiz et al. 1992, cited in Carrasco et al. 2010) Spawning is thermally dependent, occurs in summer months (Port Stephens Fisheries Centre 2003, cited in Global Invasive Species Database 2015) Water temperature, phytoplankton blooms; North Sea high recruitment years coincided with higher summer month water temperatures over those years (Diederich et al. 2005, cited in NIMPIS 2015). [Natural condition] Spawning is possible when the cumulative temperature is more than 600ºC at the condition of more than 10ºC when maturity begins. Spawning may begin by the change of the water temperature and the salinity under these condition. Release of sperm causes the release of eggs (Miyagi prefecture 1994) Spawning occurs when the oyster bed was submerged by in-coming flood. (Amemiya 1928) First spawning takes place at half tide when the tides are turning from springs to neaps in mid-July and afterwards, at intervals of ca. 2 weeks, the second and third spawning take place; this corresponds to the tidal cycle. (Koganezawa 1978)

Reproduction Time:

Summer spawners (Mann et al. 1991; Ruiz et al. 1992, cited in Carrasco et al. 2010) Spawning occurs in summer months (Port Stephens Fisheries Centre 2003, cited in Global Invasive Species Database 2015) [Japan] Spawning season tends to become short in northern part with a low water temperature but to become long in southern part with a high water temperature. Spawnng in northern part may not occur every year but occurs infrequently at the year of a high water temperature (Yoshida 1964) Spawning occurs twice a year in mid-July and early August or occurs three times a year during July and August at Mangoku-ura, Miyagi prefecture (Yoshida 1964) Spawning in Ariake Bay, southern part of Japan, ranges from May to November having four major spawning periods; (a) from late June to early July, (b) mid-July, (c) from late August to early September, (d) late September (Tanaka 1954)

Fecundity:

C. gigas females can produce 30 to 40 million eggs/ spawning event (Port Stephens Fisheries Centre 2003, cited in Global Invasive Species Database 2015) C.g is extremely fertile, reproductive organs can account for 50% of body volume over breeding season; can produce 50-100 million eggs, released over several spawning events (The Prince William Sound Regional Citizens' Advisory Council 2004, cited in Global Invasive Species Database 2015) [Japan] More than 50 million (Miyazaki 1957) More than one handred million in an individual of 50g weight (Kawamoto 1967)

Egg Size:

[French Atlantic] four stages of mean oocyte diameter: 1) “Early gametogenesis” 8.47 + 4.6 μm; 2) “ Growing stage” 21.4 + 8.4 μm; 3) “ Mature stage” 36 ± 4.4 μm and (4) “ Degenerating stage” with 46 ± 7.3. (Lango-Reynoso et al. 2000) From 0.05mm to 0.06mm (Tanita 1960, Hokkaido Research Organization 2015)

Egg Duration:

[French Atlantic] In Bay of Brest and Marennes-Oléron; early gametogenesis observed November-March; Growing stage observed April-June; Mature oocytes observed July-September; Degenerating stage observed September-November (Lango-Reynoso et al. 2000) After one or two hours from the fertilizing, eggs begin to divide and become a morula (Hokkaido Research Organization 2015)

Early Life Growth Rate:

C.g has very high growth rates; can grow to over 75mm in the first 18 months of life. (Port Stephens Fisheries Centre 2003, cited in Global Invasive Species Database 2015) larval settlement occurred at 11-30 days in lab culture at 16 to 30⁰C (Quayle 1969, cited in NEMESIS 2015; His et al. 1989, cited in NEMESIS 2015). planktonic larvae spend approx. three weeks in a free-swimming phase (NIMPIS 2002, cited in Global Invasive Species Database 2015) Morulas develop into D-larvae of 70 μm shell height in 24 hours via trochophore and veliger larval stage. About two weeks later, D-larvae develop into pediveliger larvae of 300 μm shell height. ( Hokkaido Research Organization 2015)

Adult Growth Rate:

25mm/year (NIMPIS 2015). [Japan] It grows up to 42mm in a half year and up to 47mm in a year at Hiroshima Bay and grows 48mm in a half year and up to 59mm in a year at Sendai Bay (Yoshida 1964)

Population Growth Rate:

NF

Population Variablity:

Non-native: [Europe] C.gigas increasing in abundance in Wadden Sea; oyster reefs likely to re-establish, at least in intertidal zone. (Nehring 2003, cited in Global Invasive Species Database 2015) [Wadden Sea] oyster beds developing into solid reefs at several sites. C. gigas expected to take over in the Wadden Sea; as an ecosystem engineer creating solid reefs and as a competitive suspension feeder. (Reise et al. 2005, cited in Global Invasive Species Database 2015) [Japan] Not found any data of natural condition (Otani pers. comm.)

Habitat

Ecosystem:

Rocky Intertidal, Rocky subtidal, Oyster reef, Mussel reef, Sediment subtidal, Fouling

Habitat Type:

Epibenthic, Epizoic

Substrate:

Rock, Biogenic, Mud, Sand, Gravel, Cobble, Artificial substrate

Exposure:

Protected, Very protected

Habitat Expansion:

Expansion

Habitat Details:

Expansion: [Northern Wadden Sea] population expanded its range from intertidal to subtidal; and north and south of the island of Sylt along the coast (Diederich 2005) Protected rocky shores of estuaries; forms large, dense aggregations; attached to shells or on rocky substrate (Niesen 1997) Intertidal organism; C. gigas is in direct contact with air during variable periods of the day (Carrasco et al. 2010) Larvae settle on clean, hard surfaces; rocks, muddy or sandy areas where they attach to small stones, shell fragments, other debris; on top of other adult oysters ( Port Stephens Fisheries Centre 2003, cited in Global Invasive Species Database 2015) Substrate: will attach to most hard surfaces; rocks, muddy or sandy areas; adult oysters (same or different species). Habitat: sheltered waters; estuaries; intertidal and shallow subtidal zones. Found to a depth of 3 metres. (NIMPIS 2002, cited in Global Invasive Species Database 2015) [Germany] After settlement, the lower valve is cemented to a hard substrate. At Sylt [in the German Wadden Sea], 85% attached to Mytilus edulis (both living and empty shells). Other bivalves (8%). two juvenile oysters attached to C.gigas adults (Reise 1998, cited in Global Invasive Species Database 2015) Substrate details: bedrock, concrete, oyster reef, wood, cobble, sand-fine. Tidal range: low-tide, mid-tide, sub-tidal (NIMPIS 2015) Live from intertidal to shallow subtidal at the inner bay including blackish water with attaching firmly to the hard substrata or with making oyster bed at cobble beach (Okutani ed. 2000)

Trophic Level:

Suspension feeder

Trophic Details:

Detritivore, sessile filter feeder; Can filter nanoplankton in addition to detritus and large phytoplankton, has larger access to food compared to native oyster O. lurida (Niesen 1997) Eats bacteria, protozoa, variety of diatoms, invertebrate larvae, and detritus (PWSRCAC 2004; cited in Global Invasive Species Database 2015) Food of C. gigas is consisted of micro-planlkton and detoritus. Among micro-plankton, diatom accounts for the most. Others are protozoa, copepoda and bivalve larva (Tamura 1960)

Forage Mode:

Generalist

Forage Details:

Detritivore, sessile filter feeder; Can filter nanoplankton in addition to detritus and large phytoplankton, has larger access to food compared to native oyster O. lurida (Niesen 1997). The food of C. gigas is consisted of diatoms, dinoflagellates, ciliates and larvae of invertebrate animals. (Kawamoto 1967)

Natural Control:

COMPETITION [Competition] for space at the juvenile spat stage: Mytilus edulis (Haure et al 1991, cited in NIMPIS 2015). Polychaete Lanice conchilega (Ropert and Goulletquer 2000, cited in NIMPIS 2015); ascidians and other fouling species; capable of growing over oysters (NIMPIS 2015) [Competition] Mytilus galloprovincialis, Musculista senhousia, tunicata, sponge, bryozoa,and barnacle compete with C. gigas for food. (Kawamoto 1967) [Competition] Sometimes these competetor smothered C. gigas by covering its shell. (Kawamoto 1967) PREDATION [Predation] Predated upon by the Atlantic oyster drill, Urosalpinx cinerea, introduced with the Virginia oyster. Extent of predation not mentioned. (Niesen 1997) [Predation] consumed by: seastars, boring gastropods & bivalves, spionid polychaetes, crabs, benthic feeding fish, ducks, wading birds (NIMPIS 2015) [Predation] Sometimes these competitors choked C. gigas by covering the shell. (Kawamoto 1967) PARASITES [Parasites] [Japan] Parasitic copepod, Mytilicola orientalis, originally described from C. gigas. Infests the intestinal tract of its host. Effect on C.g. condition index ranges from minimal to adverse, depending on location and season. Movement of infested C. gigas introduced M. orientalis from Japan to the west coast, France, and Ireland. (Bower 2010) [Parasites] [Tomales Bay, California] summer temperatures of 25C activate herpesvirus, generating high seed mortality (Burge et al. 2007, cited in Carrasco et al. 2010). [Parasites] [Japan] Parasitic bacterial infection by Vibrio spp. is very common. Vibrio splendidus bivar II caused mass mortalities in C. gigas Japanese hatcheries (Sugumar et al. 1998, cited in Bower, 2009). Bacteria attach to the external shell surface along the peripheral valvular margin; they then form colonies that grow and contact the mantle causing necrosis of mantle epithelium and bacteria penetrate into all soft tissues via the coelomic cavity (Bower 2009) [Parasites] [Japan, Korea] Myicola ostreae: parasitic copepod that infects the gills, reduces growth rate, and can lead to mortality. Native to Korea/Japan; introduced to Europe through movement of infested C. gigas (Longshaw 2015) [Parasites] [California] Grandidierella japonica: amphipod introduced to U.S. Pacific with Crassostrea as early as 1928 to Tomales, Bolinas, and San Francisco, CA (Chapman and Dorman 1975, cited in Rudy 2013) * not specified whether C. gigas or Crassostrea spp. [Parasites] Polydra caused mass decease (20-30% of loss) of C. gigas at lake Kamo during 1962 and 1964. (Kawamoto 1967)

Associated Species:

EPIBIONT [Epibiont] [Hawaii] Diadumene lineata found on and among C. gigas (Carlton & Eldredge 2009) PARASITES [Parasites] [Japan] Parasitic copepod, Mytilicola orientalis, originally described from C. gigas. Effect on C.g. condition index ranges from minimal to adverse, depending on location and season. Movement of infested C. gigas introduced M. orientalis from Japan to the west coast, France, and Ireland.(Bower 2010) [Parasites] [Tomales Bay, California] summer temperatures of 25C activate herpesvirus, generating high seed mortality (Burge et al. 2007, cited in Carrasco et al. 2010). [Parasites] [Japan] Parasitic bacterial infection by Vibrio spp. is very common. Vibrio splendidus bivar II caused mass mortalities in C. gigas Japanese hatcheries (Sugumar et al. 1998, cited in Bower, 2009). Bacteria attach to the external shell surface along the peripheral valvular margin; they then form colonies that grow and contact the mantle causing necrosis of mantle epithelium and bacteria penetrate into all soft tissues via the coelomic cavity (Bower 2009) [Parasites] [Japan, Korea] Myicola ostreae: parasitic copepod that infects the gills, reduces growth rate, and can lead to mortality. Native to Korea/Japan; introduced to Europe through movement of infested C. gigas (Longshaw 2015) [Parasites] [California] Grandidierella japonica: amphipod introduced to U.S. Pacific with Crassostrea as early as 1928 to Tomales, Bolinas, and San Francisco, CA (Chapman and Dorman 1975, cited in Rudy 1988) * not specified whether C. gigas or Crassostrea spp. , probably C. gigas, as G.japonica is a Japanese amphipod [Parasites] [Japan] Polydra lives in the burrow bored on the shell of C. gigas. (Kawamoto 1967) TRAVELLERS [Travellers] As hitchhiking species on the shell of C. gigas, Batillaria attramentaria, Asian snail,Terebrasabella heterouncinata, the shell-boring sabellid polychaeta, and Caulacanthus ustulatus, Asian turf-forming red alga are known. (Byers 2000, Kuris & Culver 1999, Neto 2000)

References and Notes

References:

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Literature:

Extensive scientific information; peer-reviewed information; data specific to the location; supported by long-term datasets (10 years or more)

Notes:

NA