Asterias amurensis

Overview

Scientific Name: Asterias amurensis

Phylum: Echinodermata

Class: Asteroidea

Order: Forcipulatida

Family: Asteriidae

Genus: Asterias

Species:

amurensis [Describe here as A. iricolor]

Native Distribution

Origin Realm:

Arctic, Temperate northern Pacific

Native Region:

Origin Location:

Arctic Arctic ocean, Bering Sea, Bering Strait (Gauthier & Steel 1996) STATED Eastern Bering Sea from the eastern Chukchi Sea (Feder et al. 2005, cited in Smith & Armistead 2014; Jewett & Feder 1981, cited in Smith & Armistead 2014) STATUS IMPLIED (by listing invaded areas afterward) Bering Sea (Lambert 1978) STATUS NOT STATED Bering Sea (Laurth 2010) STATUS NOT STATED Temperate Northern Pacific Okhotsk Sea, East Sea, part of the Japanese Pacific coast (Gauthier & Steel 1996) STATED Pacific Northwest (Japan, Russia, North China, Korea) (ISSG 2010) STATED Japan and Russia (Gillespie et al. 2012) STATED North Pacific (multiple authors, cited in Byrne et al. 1997) STATED Northern Pacific coasts of Korea, Russia, Japan (Lee et al. 2004) STATED Eastern Bering Sea from the eastern Chukchi Sea (Feder et al. 2005, cited in Smith & Armistead 2014; Jewett & Feder 1981, cited in Smith & Armistead 2014) to the Gulf of Alaska (Clark 2006, cited in Smith & Armistead 2014) and British Columbia (Lambert 1981, cited in Smith & Armistead 2014); throughout the Sea of Japan; Tatar Strait (both east and west shores); east coast of Sakhalin Island (Smith & Armistead 2014) STATUS IMPLIED (by listing invaded areas afterward) Dokdo, Republic of Korea (Ryu et al. 2012) STATUS NOT STATED Primor'ye, Russia (Kalashnikov & Levin 1986) STATUS NOT STATED Central part of Nemuro Strait (Takamaru & Sato 1983) STATUS NOT STATED Seto Inland Sea, Japan (Kato 1996) STATUS NOT STATED Vostok Gulf, Sea of Japan (Latyshev et al. 2001) STATUS NOT STATED Tokyo Bay, Otsuchi Bay, Japan (Nakachi et al. 2006) STATUS NOT STATED Busse Lake, Saghalien; Tomari Bay, Kunashiri Island, Kuril Islands, Russia; Akkeshi, Muroran, Oshoro, Hakodate, and Hokkaido; Kinkasan, Miyagi Prefecture; Yamagata Prefecture; Toyama Bay;Tango Peninsula, Kyoto or Hyogo Prefecture; Miyazu Bay, Kyoto Prefecture; Shirahama, Wakayama Prefecture, Japan. (Hayashi 1943) STATUS NOT STATED At the west coast of Peshi-misaki Point, and at the south of the ferry terminal of Oshidomari Port, Rishiri Island, Hokkaido. (Komatsu et al. 2007) STATUS NOT STATED Asamushi, Mutsu Bay, Aomori Prefecture. (Tsuchiya & Osanai 1978) STATUS NOT STATED Off the coast of Yokohama Town, Mutsu Bay, Aomori Prefceture. (Sato et al. 1994) STATUS NOT STATED Off the coast of Odanozawa, Aomori Prefecture. (Aomori Prefecture 2013) STATUS NOT STATED Along the coast of Yamagata Prefecture, the Japan Sea. (Suzuki 1979) STATUS NOT STATED Off Nagai, between Tateishi and Ogashima, off Hayama (Hayashi 1973) STATUS NOT STATED Osaka Bay. (Association for the Research of Littoral Organisims in Osaka Bay (1993, 2007) STATUS NOT STATED Seto Inland Sea (Inaba 1988) STATUS NOT STATED Ariake Bay: (Miisho et al. 1965) STATUS NOT STATED From Hokkaido to Kyushu (Saba et al. 2002) STATUS NOT STATED Western region of the Sea of Japan. (Japan Fisheries Resource Conservation Association 1990) STATUS NOT STATED Tokyo Bay. (Kurata et al. 1954, Ino et al. 1955, Sugawara 1975) Uncertain realm Alaska (Ruiz et al. 2006) STATED

Geographic Range:

-173.100006103516 -43.1000022888184,158.100006103516 68.3000030517578 (OBIS 2016) 35º to 55º latitudinal range (Bates et al. 2013) Bering Sea: 55.00525 to 60.98772 latitudinal range (Laurth 2010) [Japan] 35 to 41º N (Byrne et al. 1997) Eastern Bering Sea from the eastern Chukchi Sea (Feder et al. 2005, cited in Smith & Armistead 2014; Jewett & Feder 1981, cited in Smith & Armistead 2014) to the Gulf of Alaska (Clark 2006, cited in Smith & Armistead 2014) and British Columbia (Lambert 1981, cited in Smith & Armistead 2014) Arctic Ocean (Gauthier & Steel 1996) to Tongyeong, South Korea (Paik et al. 2005, cited in Smith & Armistead 2014) From 34º N at the Pacific side and 36º N at Japan Sea side to 50º N at both side. (Inaba 1988)

General Diversity:

Tasmanian population differs significantly from those of Japan, possibly due to founder effects, but is more closely related to populations in Suruga and Tokyo bays than those of northern or southern Japan (Ward & Andrew 1995, cited in Smith & Armistead 2014)

Non-native Distribution

Invasion History:

Yes (ISSG 2010)

Non-native Region:

Southern Australia and New Zealand

Invasion Propens:

Temperate Australasia Southern coasts of Australia (ISSG 2010) *Alien and invasive in Derwent Estuary and Port Philip Bay, alien with unspecified invasiveness for Henderson Lagoon South eastern Australia including Tasmania and Victoria (CSIRO 2004, cited in ISSG 2010) *Invasive Eastern and south eastern coasts of Tasmania, 42 to 43 ºS (Byrne et al. 1997) *Introduced and established. Notes that origin of the population is central Japan

Status Date Non-native:

First reported in Tasmania in 1986 (Byrne et al. 1997; ISSG 2011, cited in Stevens & Rudnick 2010) First reported in Victoria, Australia in 1998 (ISSG 2011, cited in Stevens & Rudnick 2010) First reported in Australia: 1985 (Hayes et al. 2005) Sullivans Cove and Sandy Bay (Derwent River Estuary), Tasmania: August 1993 to October 1994 (Byrne et al. 1997) Collected in Tasmania in 1982 (Turner 1992, cited in Dunstan & Bax 2007)

Vectors and Spread

Initial Vector:

Ballast water, Solid ballast, Hull fouling (commercial and recreational), Aquaculture and Fisheries, Live seafood, Recreation, Other

Second Vector:

Natural dispersal, Ballast (not specified)

Vector Details:

Introduction vectors: live fish trade; ship ballast water (as larvae); ship hull fouling; recreational boating; fouling of scallop longlines, spat bags, mussel and oyster lines, salmon cages (ISSG 2010) Spread as larvae by water currents (ISSG 2010) Introduction vectors: debris from the Tohoku tsunami carried individuals from Japan to Oregon, USA; machinery/equipment; ship/hull fouling (Stevens & Rudnick 2010) Ship ballast (not specified) can result in local and long distance spread (Stevens & Rudnick 2010) Range expansion through natural dispersal (NIMPIS 2015) Vessel vectors include: biofouling, ballast water, dry ballast, fisheries (accidental; not mollusc), packing material for bait and fishery products, fisheries (accidental; products, but not oysters) (NIMPIS 2015) Introduction vectors: hull fouling and ballast water (Hayes et al. 2005) Introduction vector to Tasmania: ballast water of a general purpose cargo vessel (Gauthier & Steel 1996)

Spread Rate:

[Port Phillip Bay] Reached a population of 12 million individuals in two years (ISSG 2010)

Date First Observed in Japan:

Not applicable

Date First Observed on West coast North America:

Not applicable

Impacts

Impact in Japan:

Outbreaks in the "boom" part of the cycle costs the mariculture industry millions of dollars (NSW 2007, cited in ISSG 2010; NIMPIS 2002, cited in ISSG 2010) Though A. m. is a native species in Japan, it is said that the outbreak of the species occurred several times causing serious damages to the fisheries at Tokyo Bay (Kurata 1954), Sendai Bay (Hatanaka & Kosaka 1959), Ise Bay (Hossain 1997, cited in Ganmanee et al. 2004), and Ariake Bay. (Miisho et al. 1965, Nojima et al. 1986) Other outbreak records are from northern Kyushu of Karatsu Bay during 1976 and 1978, Buzen Kai during 1979 (?) and 1980, and Hakata Bay during 1982 and 1983. (Nojima 2001) Especially in Tokyo Bay, the amount of damage to the shellfish culture by A. m. was estimated at about 300 million yen. (Kurata 1957)

Global Impact:

Potential to establish large populations in new areas (ISSG 2010) Preys on handfish (Brachionichthys hirsutus) egg masses, and/or on the ascidians that the handfish spawn on, and so have been implicated in the decline of this species (NSW 2007, cited in ISSG 2010) Settles on scallop longlines, spat bags, mussel and oyster lines and salmon cages (CSIRO 2004, cited in ISSG 2010) Affects oyster production on some farms in southeastern Tasmania (NSW 2007, cited in ISSG 2010) [Derwent Estuary, Australia] Responsible for the decline and resulting rarity of adult bivalves by impacting the survival of juveniles (Ross 2001, 2002, cited in ISSG 2010) Loss of aquaculture/commercial/recreational harvest; Dominates/out competes and limits resources of native species; predation of native species (Hayes et al. 2005) Able to cause significant damage to Mizuhopecten yessoensis plantations, especially when scallops are young (Kalashnikov & Levin 1986) Can cause up to 90% mortality of scallops in collector bags and grow-out nets if not removed early (Barkhouse et al. 2007) Juveniles can kill 3.8 Patinopecten yessoensis (scallop) spat per day (Hoshikawa 1987, cited in Maru 1994) May decrease the aesthetic and recreational value of the marine environment in Tasmania, in addition to affecting wild and cultured mollusc populations (AQIS 1994c, cited in Gauthier & Steel 1996) [Posyet Bay, Russia] Settlement on collectors can destroy up to 90% of Yezo scallop spat (Motavkin 1986) [Southeastern Tasmania, Australia] Able to reduce Fulvia teuicostata juveniles by ~15 fold, supporting the hypothesis that A.a. is responsible for the decrease of large bivalves (Ross et al. 2002, cited in Smith & Armistead 2014)

Tolerences

Native Temperature Regime:

See details

Native Temperature Range:

Sea surface temperature ranged from 5 - 8 ºC during collection (Lee et al. 2004) [Vostok Bay] Temperature at collection: 20.2 ºC (Kashenko 2003) [Sendai Bay] Optimum temperature of A. m. was found to be in the range between 9 and 13 ºC. (Hatanaka & Kosaka 1959) [Tokyo Bay] It is estimated that the optimal temperature is less than 16 ºC. (Kurata et al. 1954) Suitable temperature range is 5 - 20 ºC. (Sagara & Ino 1954, cited in Sagara1975) [Off the east coast Aomori Prefecture] Temperature is 24.1 ºC in September. (Aomori Prefecture 2013) [Yamashita Park, Yokohama City] 9.6 - 26.8 ºC during 2012 and 2013. (Yokohama Institute of Environmental Science 2014)

Non-native Temperature Regime:

See details

Non-native Temperature Range:

[Sullivans Cove, Tasmania] Maximum bottom temperature 16.1 ºC. Minimum from 10 - 11 ºC (Byrne et al. 1997) [Sandy Bay, Tasmania] Maximum bottom temperature 16.5 ºC. Minimum from 10 - 11 ºC (Byrne et al. 1997)

Native Salinity Regime:

Mesohaline, Polyhaline, Euhaline

Native Salinity Range:

[Vostok Bay] 33 - 35 psu in areas that A.a. inhabited (Kashenko 2003) [Tokyo Bay] Optimal specific gravity is 1.011 - 1.026. (Sagara & Ino 1954) (Caliculated salinity bt state equation: 16.0 - 35.6 psu) [Off the east coast Aomori Prefectrue] Salinity is 33.6 psu in September. (Aomori Prefecture 2013) [Yamashita Park, Yokohama City] 26.6 - 30.2 psu during 2013 and 2014. (Yokohama Institute of Environmental Science 2014)

Non-native Salinity Regime:

NF

Temperature Regime Survival:

See details

Temperature Range Survival:

Sampled from 0.364 - 14.476 ºC (OBIS 2016) Prefers 7 - 10 ºC, but can survive 22 ºC (ISSG 2010) [Japan] 0.0 - 25.0 ºC (ambient; Ino et al. 1955, cited in NIMPIS 2015). No death after 10 days at 1 ºC (Marsh 1993, cited in NIMPIS 2015) Adults lose weight below 4 ºC and above 20 ºC (Hatakana & Kosaka 1959, cited in NIMPIS 2015; Park & Kim 1985, cited in NIMPIS 2015) Mortality at 25 ºC (Park & Kim 1985, cited in NIMPIS 2015) Upper limit 23 ºC (Davenport and McLoughlin 1993, cited in NIMPIS 2015) Adults lose weight below 4 ºC and above 20 ºC, and die at 25 ºC (Hawkes & Day 1993, cited in NIMPIS 2015) *note that different sections of NIMPIS attributed this information to different authors 29 ºC heat tolerance limit (Bates et al. 2013) Minimum temperature estimated to be 0.97 ºC (Lee et al. 2004) [Sendai Bay] Optimum temperature of A. m. was found to be in the range between 9 and 13 ºC. (Hatanaka & Kosaka 1959) [Tokyo Bay] It is estimated that the optimal temperature is less than 16 ºC. (Kurata et al. 1954)

Temperature Regime Reproduction:

See details

Temperature Range Reproduction:

5.0 - 23.0 ºC (NIMPIS 2015) Optimal larval growth recorded at 12 - 25 ºC (Dawris 1985, cited in NIMPIS 2015) Development takes two months at 10 - 19 ºC (Byne et al. 1997, cited in NIMPIS 2015) Larvae hatch in laboratory at temperatures greater than 10 ºC (Dawris 1985, cited in NIMPIS 2015) Juveniles died after 2 days at 29 ºC and four days at 1.1 ºC (Hawkes & Day 1983, cited in NIMPIS 2015) [Tasmania] Major spawning activity took place when sea bottom temperatures ranged from 10.2 - 13.8 ºC (Byrne et al. 1997) [Japan] Spawning occurs at 5 - 12 ºC (mulitple authors, cited in Byrne et al. 1997) Spawning occurs at 5 - 10 ºC (surface temperature) in Mutsu Bay, Japan (Kim 1968, cited in Byrne et al. 1997); 9 - 12 ºC (bottom temperature) in Sendai Bay, Japan (Hatanaka & Kosaka 1959, cited in Byrne et al. 1997); 11 ºC in Tokyo Bay, Japan (Ino et al. 1955, cited in Byrne et al. 1997); 17 and 23 ºC (surface temperature; two spawnings) in Peter the Great Bay, Russia (Novikova 1979, cited in Byrne et al. 1997) Sperm half life at 10ºC is less than 2 hours; less than 30 minutes at 17 ºC (NIMPIS 2002, cited in ISSG 2010) [Korea] Fertilization success was not affected by temperatures from 10 ºC to 20 ºC. However, more hatched at 15 ºC (74.4±10.7%) than at 10 ºC (60.7±9.2%, though not significantly different from 15 ºC), or at 20 ºC (21.3±4.3%) (Lee et al. 2004) [Korea] Optimal range to rear healthy larvae is 10 - 15 ºC (Lee et al. 2004) [Vostok Sea, Sea of Japan] Embryonic development passes successfully at 10 - 17 ºC (and 26 to 32 psu). Blastulae survive and develop from 5 - 17 ºC (and 18 - 32 psu) (5, 10, 14, 17, 20 and 22 ºC tested; Kashenko 2005) [Tokyo Bay] Spawning occurred at temperature of 6.3 ºC - 13.9 ºC. (Kurata et al. 1954) Suitable range for spawning is 5 ºC - 20 ºC wtith optimal range of 10 ºC - 20 ºC. (Sagara & Ino 1954)

Salinity Regime Survival:

Polyhaline, Euhaline, Hypersaline

Salinity Range Survival:

31.546 - 35.086 (OBIS 2016) Adults can survive immersion in 26 psu, but are dead within nine days at 24 psu (McEnnulty et al. 2001, cited in Stevens & Rudnick 2010) 18.7 (observed in Tasmania; Craig Proctor, cited in NIMPIS 2015) 22 - 41.0 psu optimal (multiple authors, cited in NIMPIS 2015) [Vostok Bay, Japan] Lower salinity desalination resistance is 22 psu; seastars started to die at 20 and 18 psu (6 to 32 psu, at 2 psu intervals, tested; Kashenko 2003) [Tokyo Bay] It is estimated that the optimal specific gravity is more than 1.019. (Kurata et al. 1954)

Salintiy Regime Reproduction:

Polyhaline, Euhaline

Salinity Range Reproduction:

Larvae cannot survive below 9.75 psu; extensive cellular damage occurs after 1 - 2 minutes (McEnnulty et al. 2001, cited in Stevens & Rudnick 2010) 28.5 - 34.8 psu (NIMPIS 2015) [Vostok Sea, Sea of Japan] Embryonic development passes successfully at 26 to 32 psu (and 10 - 17 ºC). Blastulae survive and develop from 18 - 32 psu (and 5 - 17 ºC). Gastrulae and bipinnariae survive from 20 to 32 psu. Juveniles survive 22 - 32 psu (8 - 32 psu tested; Kashenko 2005) [Tokyo Bay] Spawning occurred at specific gravity of 1.02043 - 1.01627. (Kurata et al. 1954) Suitable range of specific gravity is 1.011 - 1.026. (Sagara & Ino 1954) (Caliculated salinity by state equation: 16.0 - 35.6 psu)

Depth Regime:

Upper intertidal, Mid intertidal, Lower intertidal, Shallow subtidal, Deep subtidal, Bathyal

Depth Range:

Sampled from 0 - 170 m (OBIS 2016) Shallow waters and intertidal zones (ISSG 2010) 0 - 220 m; low, mid and high intertidal; subtidal (NIMPIS 2015) Lower intertidal (Kato 1996) Sublittoral zone (Kalashnikov & Levin 1986) Sampled at 38 at 220 m (Lambert 1978) Sampled from 22m to 152 m (Laurth 2010) Sampled from 2 - 5 m deep (Takamaru & Sato 1983) Sampled from 1 - 7 m depth (Byrne et al. 1997) [Northeastern Pacific] 10 - 180 m (Clark 2006, cited in Smith & Armistead 2014) [Vostok Bay] Sampled from 4 - 6 m depth (Kashenko 2003) Distributed compactly around Hahima, the entrance of Matsushima Bay with the depth of around 20 m, and as the depth increased their number gradually decreased and became quite rare beyond the depth of 50 meters, where the inhabitant was displaced with another species, Asterias nippon. (Hatanaka & Kato 1959) Along the coast of Yamagata Prefecture: 15 - 300 m. (Suzuki 1979) Between Tateishi and Ogashima in Sagami Bay: 15 - 20 fathom. (Hayashi 1973) Intertidal zone in Osaka Bay. (Assosiation for the Research of Littoral Organisms in Osaka Bay 1993, 2007) Seto Inland Sea: 20 - 120 m deep. (Inaba 1988) Western region of the Sea of Japan: 130 m and 141 - 143 m deep. (Japan Fisheries Resource Conservation Association 1990)

Non-native Salinity Range:

Native Abundance:

Abundant, Common

Reproduction

Fertilization Mode:

external

Reproduction Mode:

Gonochoristic/ dioecious

Spawning Type:

None

Development Mode:

Planktotrophic planktonic larva (feeding)

Asexual Reproduction:

See details

Reproduction Details:

Reproduces sexually and asexually (ISSG 2010) External fertilization; larvae planktonic for up to 120 days before settling and metamorphosing into a juvenile (NSW 2004, cited in ISSG 2010) Separate sexes; sexual reproduction: eggs and sperm are released into the water; external fertilization; larvae can remain in water column for approximately 120 days. Asexual reproduction: regeneration only possible if part of the central disc is attached to the broken arm (NIMPIS 2015) Dioecious; free spawners (Kim 1968, cited in NIMPIS 2015) Pelagic larvae are long-lived (Hatanaka & Kosaka 1959, cited in Byrne et al. 1997) Externally fertilized; broadcast spawning (Dunstan & Bax 2007) Larval duration varies with temperature, given by Duration = e^(–0.11 × temperature + 5.58), tested for temperatures between 7 and 22 ºC (Bruce et al. 1995, cited in Dunstan & Bax 2007) [Mutsu Bay, Japan] Gametogenesis, in females, takes 9 months (Kim 1968, cited in Smith & Armistead 2014) Free-swimming, planktotrophic larvae (Smith & Armistead 2014) RELATED: [Class Asteroidea] Asexual reproduction often by fission (Smith & Armistead 2014)

Adult Mobility:

Actively mobile (Mobility is a normal part of at least part of the adult life cycle - at least in spurts. Not dependent upon distance traveled)

Adult Mobility Details:

Mobile (Byers et al. 2015) Because the population is constituted by various size of starfish, it is assumed that there is no transferal with the growth at Rishiri Island. (Komatsu et al. 2007) From several centimeter to 20 cm/minute at best in the group with the sucking disk at the tip of tube-feet including A. m. (Nojima 2001) Swarming of A. m. in Tokyo Bay that floats on the sea surface with filling the air in the body cavity and is moved by the tidal current is known. (Kurata et al. 1954) Maximum travel distance is 2.5 km in 32 days (78 m/day) at the west coast of Tokyo Bay and 8.1 km in 129 days (62.8 m/day) at the east coast of the bay. (Sagara 1975)

Maturity Size:

Female can reproduce at around 10 cm in diameter (when approximately one year old) (ISSG 2010) Up to 50 cm diameter (ISSG 2010) Minimum size at maturity estimated as 3.6 - 5.5 cm (Nojima et al. 1986, cited in NIMPIS 2015) [Tokyo Bay] Arm length at maturity 4.6 cm for females, 4.7 cm for males (Ino et al. 1955; Kim 1968, cited in NIMPIS 2015) [Mutsu Bay] Arm length at maturity 5.5 cm for both sexes (Kim 1968, cited in NIMPIS 2015) 4 cm (5 cm sexually reproductive) (Turner 1992, cited in NIMPIS 2015) 50% of seastars with 50mm arm radii had gonads; all seastars with 65 to 70 mm arm radii had gonads. Size at maturity estimated to be arm radius of 50 to 55 mm (Byrne et al. 1997) Matured at 36 mm arm length. (Kurata et al. 1954) Biological minimum size is 5.5 cm in the arm-length for the female and 5.6 cm for the male in Sendai Bay. (Hatanaka & Kosaka 1959)

Maturity Age:

Female can reproduce when approximately one year old (at around 10 cm in diameter) (ISSG 2010) Age to maturity: 365 days (NIMPIS 2015) Tokyo Bay: One year. (Kurata et al. 1954, Ino et al. 1955)

Reproduction Lifespan:

NF

Longevity:

Live at least four years in Sendai Bay. (Hatanaka & Kosaka 1959) Estimated with 2 - 3 years. (Kurata et al. 1954)

Broods per Year:

[Japan and Tasmania] Breeds once per year (Byrne et al. 1997) [Peter the Great Bay] Twice-yearly breeding pattern (Kasyanov et al. 1980, cite in Byrne et al. 1997) [Sendai Bay] During spawning season the matured eggs will be spawned successively several times. (Hatanaka & Kosaka 1959)

Reproduction Cues:

Ovaries mature when levels of 3', 5'-monophosphate (cGMP) decrease, reinitiating meiosis in oocytes (Nemoto & Ishida 1983, cited in NIMPIS 2015) Photoperiod and sea temperature regulate reproductive cycle. Onset of gonadal recovery coincided with the longest day of the year, and initiation of spawning with the shortest day of the year. Initiation of gamete release coincided with temperature minimum bottom sea temperature (Byrne et al. 1997) Spawning can be induced by injecting 1 mL of 100 µm 1-methyladenine into the coelomic cavity (Strathmann 1987, cited in Lee et al. 2004)

Reproduction Time:

VARIABILITY [Tokyo Bay, Japan] January - April, with peak in late February - early March (Ino et al. 1955, cited in NIMPIS 2015) From February to April with peak in March. (Kurata et al. 1954) [Tokyo Bay, Japan] Winter spawning (Bates et al. 2010) [Sendai Bay, Japan] February (Hatanaka & Kosaka 1959, cited in Smith & Armistead 2014) Spawning occurred during the period from January to March, in water temperatures ranging between 9.8 and 12.3 ºC at the bottom and between 8.4 and 10.7 ºC at the surface'. (Hatanaka & Kosaka 1959) [Mutsu Bay, Japan] March - April (Kim 1968, cited in Smith & Armistead 2014; Hawkes & Day 1993, cited in NIMPIS 2015) [Hokkaido, Japan] July (Ino et al. 1955, cited in Smith & Armistead 2014; Dan 1957, cited in Komatsu et al. 2007; Hawkes & Day 1993, cited in NIMPIS 2015) [Asamushi, Mutsu Bay, Japan] May and June; January to March (Hirohashi et al. 2008) *given in same paragraph; difference not clear [Asamushi, Mutsu Bay, Japan] May and June (Nakachi et al. 2006) [Asamushi, Mutsu Bay, Japan] Early April to middle May. (Tsuchiya & Osanai 1978) [Japan] Gonad development is at maximum in January, with spawning in late winter and early spring (February to May) (Byrne et al. 1997) Spawn at nearly the same time as the scallop Mizuhopecten yessoensis (Motavkin 1986) [Tongyeong, South Korea] April (Paik et al. 2005, cited in Smith & Armistead 2014) [Peter the Great Bay, Russia] Spawn in June and September (Hawkes & Day 1993, cited in NIMPIS 2015) Non-native: [Tasmania, Australia] July - October (Hawkes & Day 1993, cited in NIMPIS 2015) Non-native: [Tasmania, Australia] Vitellogenic and spermatogenic growth began in April; breeding condition reached by June; spawning from July to September or October; larvae in plankton July to January; settlement occurring from September onwards (Byrne et al. 1997) Non-native: [Australia] Spawning occurs between July and October (ISSG 2010)

Fecundity:

Female seastar is able to carry up to 20 million eggs (ISSG 2010) Females can produce 10 - 25 million eggs per year (NIMPIS 2015) [Sendai Bay, Japan] 0.4 to 15.5 million eggs in mature females' ovaries, varying by age. One year old females with 8.5 - 9.1 cm arm length produced ~0.4 - 2.8 million eggs, while two year old females with 11 - 14 cm arm length produced 5.3 - 15.5 million eggs (Hatanaka & Kosaka 1959, cited in Smith & Armistead 2014) 5 - 20 million eggs (Hatanaka & Kosaka 1959, cited in Byrne et al. 1997) *not noted whether per season or per lifetime One year old females with arms measuring 8.5 - 9.1 cm produce 0.2 - 2.8 million eggs, and wo year old females produce 5.3 - 15.5 million eggs (Hatanaka & Kosaka 1959) 9.8 -10 millions for the individual of 9 cm in the arm-length in Tokyo Bay. (Hatanaka & Kosaka 1959) 10 600 eggs produced per gram of dry gamete (Morris 2002, cited in Dunstan & Bax 2007) 10 - 20 million mature eggs per year (Luntz 1998, cited in Smith & Armistead 2014)

Egg Size:

100 - 120 µm diameter (Hatanaka & Kosaka 1959, cited in Byrne et al. 1997) [Sendai Bay] Matured egg size was between 40 and 260 µm and average was 185 µm (Hatanaka & Kosaka 1959) Unfertilized eggs (± standard deviation): 120±7.7 µm; fertilized eggs: 165.8±11.4 µm (Lee et al. 2004) Mutsu Bay: Mature oocytes is 100 - 150 µm in diameter. (Kim 1968) Tokyo Bay: Maturity egg size is 150 - 160 µm in diameter. (Ino et al. 1955) Egg size is 0.1248 - 0.175 mm (mean: 0.1554 mm) (Kurata et al. 1954)

Egg Duration:

[Tongyeong, South Korea] Eggs hatch 22 hours after fertilization (Paik et al. 2005, cited in Smith & Armistead 2014) [Tokyo Bay] It becomes post blastocyst stage larvae in 17 hours after fertilization. (Sagara & Sugawara 1957)

Early Life Growth Rate:

Juveniles grow up to 6mm per month in the first year, then 1 - 2 mm per year until maturity (ISSG 2010) Larvae grow twice as fast as scallop spat (Ventilla 1982, cited in Barkhouse et al. 2007) Juveniles arm radius is 4 - 8 mm (Byrne et al. 1997) [Korea] Polar bodies observed 30 minutes post fertilization. Development of the bipinnaria larva at 10, 15, and 20°C took (median elapsed time) 120, 72, and 60 hours, respectively. Bipinnaria larvae were ~265 µm in width and 420 µm in length at 5 days old (Lee et al. 2004)

Adult Growth Rate:

Attain 7.8 cm in the arm-length at one year after hatching, 10.0 cm at the age of two, 11.8 cm at the age of three and 13.1 cm at the age of four. (Hatanaka & Kosaka 1959)

Population Growth Rate:

NF

Population Variablity:

[Native range] Boom and bust cycles of abundance (NSW 2007, cited in ISSG 2010)

Habitat

Ecosystem:

Coastal shore, Sediment subtidal, Tide flats, Rocky intertidal, Rocky subtidal, Reef (unspecified), Kelp forest, Flotsam, Fouling

Habitat Type:

Epibenthic

Substrate:

Mud, Sand, Mixed sediments, Rock, Artficial substrate

Exposure:

Semi-exposed, Protected

Habitat Expansion:

NF

Habitat Details:

Shallow waters of protected coasts; not found in areas of high wave action or on reefs (ISSG 2010). Often found in estuaries and on mud, sand, or rocky sheltered areas of intertidal zones (CSIRO 2004, cited in ISSG 2010) Bedrock, reef, sand-coarse, silt; soft sediment habitats and reefs (NIMPIS 2015) Kelp bed (Won et al. 2013) Pebbly-sandy bottom (Motavkin 1986) Fine sand; sheltered bays (Ross et al. 2003) Shallow subtidal, rocky coast (Lee et al. 2004) Fine sand (0.125 mm diameter) or coarser grained sediment, more consolidated material (Smith & Armistead 2014) Found on debris from the Tohoku tsunami (Stevens & Rudnick 2010) [Japan] Pebbly area at Asamushi, Aomori Prefecture. (Tsuchiya & Osanai 1978) [Japan] Found in a set net for salmon fisheries. (Komatsu et al. 2007) [Japan] Along the coast of Yamagata Prefecture: On the bottom of mud, mud and sand, sand, and coarse sand. (Suzuki 1979) Semi-exposed (M. Otani, pers. comm.)

Trophic Level:

Predator

Trophic Details:

Carnivorous (eats bivalves, gastropod molluscs, barnacles, crabs, crustaceans, worms, echinoderms (including conspecifics), ascidians, sea squirts), but will eat nearly anything, including dead fish and fish waste (CSIRO 2004, cited in ISSG 2010) Carnivore. Selective or opportunistic predator depending on available food (Turner 1992, cited in NIMPIS 2015) Generalist predator, but prefers bivalves (Ross et al. 2002, cited in NIMPIS 2015) Typically feeds on large bivalves (e.g. mussels, scallops, clams) and gastropods, crabs, barnacles. Observed eating dead seastars and fish (NIMPIS 2015) Prey size usually equals the length of seastar's arm (Kim 1969, cited in NIMPIS 2015; Turner 1992, cited in NIMPIS 2015) Observed eating other seastars (including conspecifics), dead fish (Davenport & McLoughlin 1993, cited in NIMPIS 2015) Carnivore (Kato 1996) Can use alternative food sources (e.g. epibiont film from rocky grounds, which may contain various microorganisms or benthic detrivorous invertebrates) when food is scarce (Latyshev et al. 2001) Can dig up bivalves that were buried in sand (Takamaru & Sato 1983) Generalist carnivore that eats a wide variety of live prey, and also scavenges carrion opportunistically. Digging in sediment for bivalves is limited to the top 10 cm (Smith & Armistead 2014) Generalist carnivore: Foods are bivalves, snails, crustacea and dead fish. (Nojima 2001) Foods of A. m. is related to benthos faune and varied by region in Tokyo Bay. (Kurata et al. 1954)

Forage Mode:

Generalist

Forage Details:

Will eat nearly anything it can find (CSIRO 2004, cited in ISSG 2010) Selective or opportunistic predator depending on available food (Turner 1992, cited in NIMPIS 2015) Generalist predator, but prefers bivalves (Ross et al. 2002, cited in NIMPIS 2015) Generalist predator; consumes a wide variety of prey taxa (Ross et al. 2002, cited in Ross et al. 2003) Generalist carnivore that eats a wide variety of live prey, and also scavenges carrion opportunistically (Smith & Armistead 2014) Foods of A. m. is related to benthos fauna and varied by region in Tokyo Bay. (Kurata et al. 1954)

Natural Control:

PREDATION [Predation] [Japan] Fed on by Solaster paxillatus (sunstar) (ISSG 2010, NIMPIS 2015) [Predation] [Alaskan aquaria] Fed on by king crabs (NIMPIS 2015) [Predation] [Korea] Laboratory experiments found that A.a. was preferred over over seastars, sea cucumbers, and sea urchins by Charonia sp. (trumpet snail) (Kand & Kim 2004, cited in Smith & Armistead 2014; NIMPIS 2015) [Predation] [Tokyo Bay] Fed on by Luidia quinnaria. (Kurata et al. 1954) COMPETITION [Competition] Uniophora granifera, Coscinasterias muricata (Morrice 1995, cited in NIMPIS 2015); Odobenus rosmarus divergens (Pacific walruses) (Fukuyama & Oiver 1985, cited in NIMPIS 2015) PARASITES [Parasites] [Japan] Orchitophyra stellarum and Orchitophyra sp., parasitic scuticociliates, can cause atrophy of the gonad and castration in heavily infected sea stars. Infection is more prevalent in males, and so can skew the sex ratio in a population. Also causes decreased reproductive potential due to reduced male gamete production. Also present in Pisaster ochraceus in British Columbia, and Asteria vulgaris in PEI, Canada (Bower 2004) [Parasites] [Central and northern Japan] The ciliate Orchitopbrya cf. stellarum; caprellid amphipod Caprella astericola; copepod Scottomyzon gibberum; polychaete scaleworm Arctonoe uittuta; an unidentified apicomplexan; the harpacticoid copepods Parathalestris sp., Thalestris sp., Paramphiacella sp., and Eupelite sp.; and several unidentified gammaridean amphipods were found associated with A.a. (Goggin & Bouland 1997). Orchitopbrya cf. stellarum is reported to cause castration and mortality in Japan (Byrne et al. 1997, cited in Goggin & Bouland 1997), and in Pisaster ochraceus in Canada (Leighton et al. 1991, cited in Goggin & Bouland 1997) [Parasites] [Tokyo Bay, Japan] Orchitophrya cf. stellarum infects testes and reduces testicular output (Bates et al. 2010) [Parasites] Orchitophrya stellarum reduces viable sperm, and may decrease the ratio of males to females (which would indicate ciliate-caused mortality) (Smith & Armistead 2014) RELATED: PARASITES [Asterias] [Parasites] Orchitophrya stellarum infects in the gonad of Asterias and causes damages by feeding it. (Uchida & Hayashi 1974) [Asterias] [Parasites] Several species of Ciliophora, Copepoda, Cirripedia and Amphipoda are reported from the surface of Asterias. (Uchida & Hayashi 1974)

Associated Species:

PARASITES [Parasites] [Japan] Orchitophyra stellarum and Orchitophyra sp., parasitic scuticociliates, can cause atrophy of the gonad and castration in heavily infected sea stars. Infection is more prevalent in males, and so can skew the sex ratio in a population. Also causes decreased reproductive potential due to reduced male gamete production. Also present in Pisaster ochraceus in British Columbia, and Asteria vulgaris in PEI, Canada (Bower 2004) [Parasites] [Central and northern Japan] The ciliate Orchitopbrya cf. stellarum; caprellid amphipod Caprella astericola; copepod Scottomyzon gibberum; polychaete scaleworm Arctonoe uittuta; an unidentified apicomplexan; the harpacticoid copepods Parathalestris sp., Thalestris sp., Paramphiacella sp., and Eupelite sp.; and several unidentified gammaridean amphipods were found associated with A.a. (Goggin & Bouland 1997). Orchitopbrya cf. stellarum is reported to cause castration and mortality in Japan (Byrne et al. 1997, cited in Goggin & Bouland 1997), and in Pisaster ochraceus in Canada (Leighton et al. 1991, cited in Goggin & Bouland 1997) [Parasites] [Tokyo Bay, Japan] Orchitophrya cf. stellarum infects testes and reduces testicular output (Bates et al. 2010) [Parasites] Orchitophrya stellarum reduces viable sperm, and may decrease the ratio of males to females (which would indicate ciliate-caused mortality) (Smith & Armistead 2014) RELATED: PARASITES [Asterias] [Parasites] Orchitophrya stellarum infects in the gonad of Asterias and causes damages by feeding it. (Uchida & Hayashi 1974) [Asterias] [Parasites] Several species of Ciliophora, Copepoda, Cirripedia and Amphipoda are reported from the surface of Asterias. (Uchida & Hayashi 1974)

References and Notes

References:

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Literature:

Extensive scientific information; peer-reviewed information; data specific to the location; supported by long-term datasets (10 years or more)

Notes:

Note: This species has been nominated as among 100 of the "World's Worst" invaders