Description
Polygonum perfoliatum is a fast-growing annual (Hickman and Hickman 1978) or perennial (Riefner 1982a) climbing vine.
Potentially Misidentified Species - Polygonum scandens (Climbing Knotweed) is native; P. convulvulus (Black Bindweed) is introduced. Both are upland vines. Polygonum arifolium (Halberd-Leaved Tearthumb) and P. sagitattum (Arrow-Leaved Terthumb) are native, sprawling, vine-like wetland plants.
Taxonomy
| Kingdom | Phylum | Class | Order | Family | Genus |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Plantae | Magnoliophyta | Magnoliopsida | Polygonales | Polygonaceae | Polygonum |
Synonyms
Invasion History
Chesapeake Bay Status
| First Record | Population | Range | Introduction | Residency | Source Region | Native Region | Vectors |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1975 | Established | Expanding | Introduced | Boundary Resident | North America | East Asia | Ornamental(Garden Escape), Natural Dispersal(Natural Dispersal) |
History of Spread
Polygonum perfoliatum (Mile-a-Minute) is native to eastern Asia, from India and Phillipines north to Korea, China, and Japan (Oliver 1996). It was collected on ballast in Portland OR, but there are no further records from this region. This vine appeared in a nursery in York County PA in the 1930's and was initially cultivated as an ornamental but soon became a pest (Hickman and Hickman 1978; Riefner 1982a). Apparently based on this occurrence, Fernald (1950) wrote: 'becoming established in nurseries, and may become a troublesome weed'. There were no further published records until Hickman and Hickman (1978) found several populations on the Swarthmore University campus, Philadelphia. This plant may have had several introductions to North America as a weed seed with Asian ornamental plants (Riefner 1982a). It is apparently spreading in North America and was reported from the Ohio river valley in WV and OH, also in DE, NJ, and NY (Anderson 1992; Cusick and Ortt 1987; Oliver 1996).
Polygonum perfoliatum appeared in a plot of Chinese plants in the United States Department of Agriculture Glenn Dale Introduction Nursery in Beltsville MD in 1937, but was apparently eradicated by weeding. It seems to have invaded MD from southeast PA via the Susquehanna, Deer Creek and Gunpowder River drainages. Water and bird dispersal of seeds appears to have been responsible for the rapid spread of this species in MD. By 1982, it was established in 11 MD counties (Riefner 1982a; Riefner and Windler 1979). In Washington D.C., it was found in several parks and along the Anacostia River where it co-dominates with Pueriaria montana (Kudzu ) or comes in when P. montana is removed (Fleming and Kanal 1992). Polygonum perfoliatum has now been increasing at the Smithsonian Environmental Research Center in the last few years and invading non-tidal wetlands (Whigham 1995; Fofonoff personal observation). Most records are from nontidal habitats, but 'the plant has entered the estuaries of the upper Chesapeake Bay where it flourishes along beaches and marsh strands.' (Riefner 1982a). Riefner reported P. perfoliatum from beach and marsh margins at the Hammerman Area, Gunpowder Falls State Park in 1979. At this location and further up the Bay at Havre de Grace, it was found growing densely over reeds at the edge of fresh-oligohaline Phragmites australis-Spartina cynosuroides marshes, but was not seen in in mesohaline marshes at North Point State Park, ~ 20 miles downbay (Fofonoff personal observation, 1996). In Harvill et al's (1992) Atlas of the Virginia Flora, this species is still treated under 'Novelties, waifs, and taxa of doubtful establishment, but listed for Fairfax and Loudon Counties VA. By 1996, it was found in 15 MD counties and 5 VA counties (Oliver 1996).
History References - Anderson 1992; Brown and Brown 1984; Cusick and Ortt 1987; Fernald 1950; Fleming and Kanal 1992; Harvill et al. 1992; Oliver 1996; Riefner 1982a; Riefner and Windler 1979.
Invasion Comments
Ecology
Environmental Tolerances
| For Survival | For Reproduction | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Minimum | Maximum | Minimum | Maximum | |
| Temperature (ºC) | ||||
| Salinity (‰) | 0.0 | 0.0 | ||
| Oxygen | ||||
| pH | ||||
| Salinity Range | fresh-oligo |
Age and Growth
| Male | Female | |
|---|---|---|
| Minimum Adult Size (mm) | ||
| Typical Adult Size (mm) | 3000.0 | 3000.0 |
| Maximum Adult Size (mm) | 6000.0 | 6000.0 |
| Maximum Longevity (yrs) | ||
| Typical Longevity (yrs |
Reproduction
| Start | Peak | End | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Reproductive Season | |||
| Typical Number of Young Per Reproductive Event |
|||
| Sexuality Mode(s) | |||
| Mode(s) of Asexual Reproduction |
|||
| Fertilization Type(s) | |||
| More than One Reproduction Event per Year |
|||
| Reproductive Startegy | |||
| Egg/Seed Form |
Impacts
Economic Impacts in Chesapeake Bay
Polygonum perfoliatum (Mile-a-Minute) is a serious concern in the Chesapeake Bay watershed as a rapidly growing vine, which can, at times, compete with Pueria montana (Kudzu ). This plant is also rapidly extending its range in the watershed, spreading southward into VA. Populations along the lower Susquehanna and Gunpowder Rivers MD, on Smithsonian Environmental Research Center property, and along the Anacostia River D.C. (Kenulowrth Aquatic Gardens), were mostly in well-drained upland or floodplain areas, but was also found in fresh tidal marshes (Fofonoff, personal observations). Substantial impacts are likely in much of the nontidal Chesapeake watershed, as well as along tidal fresh estuaries. This plant is on invasive plant lists in DE, MD and VA (Cooley 1993; Delaware Natural Heritage Program 1998; Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation 1999).
Aesthetic - Polygonum perfoliatum is potentially troublesome along river-banks and to tidal marsh and swamp vegetation. The vine is prickly and can make walking difficult. (Hickman and Hickman 1978; Fleming and Kanal 1992; Oliver 1996; Fofonoff personal observation), and though novel and interesting in appearance at close range, is unattractive in dense growths. Since P. perfoliatum dies back annually, it covers trees and bushes with a shroud of dead stalks each year (Hickman and Hickman 1978). It is likely to block views from waterfront property.
Habitat Change - Polygonum perfoliatum overgrows more desirable wildlife food plants and could impede movement of deer and other larger animals.
This plant can be controlled with nonselective herbicides or herbicides that target Polygonum spp., (Riefner 1982a; Oliver 1996), but either are likely to affect marsh habitat and waterfowl food supplies. A weevil, Rhinoncomimus latipes has been introduced at some locations in the Chesapeake Bay watershed for biological control of P. perfoliatum (Anacostia Watershed Society 2009; Hough-Goldstein et al. 2012).
References - Cooley 1993; Delaware Natural Heritage Program 1998; Fofonoff, personal observations; Hickman and Hickman 1978; Fleming and Kanal 1992; Oliver 1996; Riefner 1982a; Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation 1999
Economic Impacts Outside of Chesapeake Bay
Polygonum perfoliatum (Mile-a-Minute) is a rapidly spreading weed with potentially wide-ranging effects on North American wetlands and forests (Hickman and Hickman 1978; Riefner 1982a). Costs of this vine and its control are quite likely to exceed any benefits (e.g. wildlife cover, wildlife food) (Oliver 1996). This invader is a particular concern of the U. S. Forest Service. Biocontrol of this plant is being studied by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. At least 3 potential insect herbivores have been identified. However, a major concern is the effect of biocontrol agents on closely related native plants [P. arifolium (Halberd-Leaved Tearthumb); P. sagittatum (Arrow-Leaved Tearthum)}, which are a food resource for waterfowl (Mile-a-Minute Biocontrol Project 1998). An Asian weevil, Rhinoncomimus latipes, was found to be sufficiently host-specific for biocntrol of Polygonum perfoliatum (Hough-Goldstein et al. 2009). It has been introduced at some locations in 10 states (Hough-Goldstein et al. 2012)
References- Hickman and Hickman 1978; Mile-a-Minute Biocontrol Project 1998; Oliver 1996; Riefner 1982a
Ecological Impacts on Chesapeake Native Species
Polygonum perfoliatum (Mile-a-Minute) has spread rapidly in the MD portion of the Chesapeake Bay watershed, and has invaded the borders of tidal wetlands in the upper bay and Potomac (Fleming and Kanal 1992; Pasternack et al. 2000; Riefner 1982a; Whigham 1995). It is regarded as a highly invasive plant throughout the Chesapeake Bay watershed (Cooley 1993; Delaware Natural Heritage Program 1998; Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation 1999), but the extent to which it effects tidal wetland vegetation is unclear.
Competition - This vine, with its extraoridinarily rapid growth, up to 2 cm/day, covers other vegetation, and leaves a layer of dead stalks after its fall dieback. It grows over native and introduced vegetation in upland disturbed areas 'Rubus-Lonicera thickets'; 'Robinia-Lonicera waste places' (Hickman and Hickman 1978; Riefner 1982a).
Habitat Change - Growths of P. perfoliatum fill in gaps in vegetation blocking light. The dense stems and prickles may discourage movement (Riefner 1982a).
Food - This vine produced edible (for birds and mammals) berries, but the spiny foliage is poorly grazed (Riefner 1982a). Polygonum perfoliatum is eaten by many native insects, but insect herbivory is insufficient to prevent the spread and dominance of this plant (Wheeler and Mengel 1984). P perfoliatum's main effect on foodwebs is overgrowing more desirable food plants.
References - Cooley 1993; Delaware Natural Heritage Program 1998; Fleming and Kanal 1992; Hickman and Hickman 1978; Pasternack et al. 2000; Riefner 1982a; Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation 1999; Wheeler and Mengel 1984; Whigham 1995
Ecological Impacts on Other Chesapeake Non-Native Species
Polygonum perfoliatum (Mile-a-Minute) has spread rapidly in the MD portion of the Chesapeake Bay watershed, and has invaded the borders of tidal wetlands in the upper bay and Potomac (Fleming and Kanal 1992; Riefner 1982a) but the extent to which it effects tidal wetland vegetation is unclear.
Competition- The rapid growth of P. perfoliatum can cover introduced vegetation (e.g., Lonicera japonica- Japanese Honeysuckle; Pueraria montana- Kudzu) vegetation with leaves during the growing season, and with dead stalks after fall dieback, inhibiting spring growth. It grows over native and introduced plants in disturbed areas (Fleming and Kanal 1992), including 'Rubus-Lonicera thickets'; 'Robinia-Lonicera waste places' (Riefner 1982a).
References- Fleming and Kanal 1992; Riefner 1982a.
References
Anderson, K. (1992) Two new adventives for New Jersey, Bartonia 57: 104-106Brown, Melvin L.; Brown, Russell G. (1984) Herbaceous Plants of Maryland, , College Park. Pp.
Cooley, Gene (1993) Invasive exotic plants that threaten native species and natural habitats in Maryland., , Annapolis MD. Pp.
Cusick, Allison W.; Ortt, Marilynn (1987) Polygonum perfoliatum (Polygonaceae): a significant new weed in the Mississippi drainage, Sida 12: 246-248
1998 Non-native plant species in Delaware. http://www.dnrec.statede.us/iw/weeds.htm
Fernald, Merritt L. (1950) Gray's Manual of Botany, In: (Eds.) . , New York. Pp.
Fleming, Peggy; Kanal, Raclare (1992) Newly documented species of vascular plants in the District of Columbia., Castanea 57: 132-146
Harvill, A. M.; Bradley, Ted R.; Stevens, Charles E.; Wieboldt, Thomas F.; Ware, Donna M. E.; Ogle, Douglas W.; Ramsey, Gwynn W.; Fleming, Gary P. (1992) Atlas of the Virginia Flora, , Burkeville, VA. Pp.
Hickman, James C.; Hickman, Carole S. (1978) Polygonum perfoliatum: a recent Asiatic adventive, Bartonia 45: 18-23
Hough-Goldstein, J.; Lake, E.; Reardon, R. (2012) Status of an ongoing biological control program for the invasive vine, Persicaria perfoliata in eastern North America, BioControl published online: None
Hough-Goldstein, Judith and 5 authors (2009) Monitored releases of Rhinoncomimus latipes (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), a biological control agent of mile-a-minute weed (Persicaria perfoliata), 2004–2008, Biological Control 51: 450-457
Kartesz, John T. (1994) A synonymized checklist of the vascular flora of the United States, Canada, and Greenland., In: (Eds.) . , Portland OR. Pp.
1998 Mile-A-Minute InfoLink. http://www.fsl.wvu.edu/fhtet/mam/page10.html
Oliver, J. Douglas (1996) Mile-a-minute weed (Polygonum perfoliatum L.), an invasive weed in natural and disturbed sites, Castanea 61: 244-251
Pasternack, Gregory B.; Hilgartner, William B.; Brush, Grace S. (2000) Biogeomorphology of an upper Chesapeake Bay river-mouth tidal freshwater marsh, Wetlands 20: 520-537
Resource Management Inc. (1993) National list of plant species that occur in wetlands., , Minneapolis.. Pp.
Riefner, Richard E. (1982) Studies on the Maryland Flora VIII. Range extensions of Polygonum perfoliatum L., with notes on introduction and dispersal in North America, Phytologia 50: 152-159
Riefner, Richard E.; Windler, Donald R. (1979) Polygonum perfoliatum L. established in Maryland, Castanea 43: 91-93
1999 Invasive Alien Plant Species of Virginia. http://www.state.va.us/~dcr/dnh/invlist.htm
Wheeler, A. G., Jr.; Mengel, Stephanie A. (1984) Phytophagous insect fauna of Polygonum perfoliatum, an Asiatic weed recently introduced to Pennsylvania, Annals of Entomology 77: 197-202
1995 Conversation with Paul Fofonoff, Introduced plants in Chesapeake Bay..