Invasion History

First Non-native North American Tidal Record: 1873
First Non-native West Coast Tidal Record: 1873
First Non-native East/Gulf Coast Tidal Record:

General Invasion History:

The gribble Limnoria quadripunctata was described from the Netherlands by Holthuis in 1949 (Menizies 1957). Historically, most gribbles (wood-boring isopods) were identified as L. lignorum, a widespread Northern Hemisphere, cold-water species. However, taxonomic studies by Holthuis (1949b), Menzies (1957) and Cookson (1990) have described many species – Cookson lists 28, most of them tropical. Limnoria quadripunctata is mostly temperate-subtropical in its range (Menzies 1957), though records are known from the Philippines (Wallour 1960) and Belize (USNM 1088390, US Museum of Natural History 2007). In the Northeast Atlantic (Jones 1963) and Northeast Pacific (Carlton 1979; Cohen and Carlton 1995), L. quadripunctata is recognized as an introduced species. The temperate south Pacific is a possible native region, given the large number of records reported by Cookson (1990) from southern Australia, New Zealand, and a wide range on the coast of Chile (Haye et al. 2012). In Chile, L. quadripunctata bores extensively into Giant Kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) as well as wood, so rafting on either is a potential mechanism of dispersal in the southern Hemisphere. Genetic analysis supports a rapid population expansion of L. quadripunctata in Chile in the late Pleistocene (Haye et al. 2012).

North American Invasion History:

Invasion History on the West Coast:

A Limnoria species, probably Limnoria quadripunctata, based on its thermal requirements and current distribution, appeared on the San Francisco waterfront in 1873 (Carlton 1979; Cohen and Carlton 1995). Since the species was not described until 1949, and was often identified as L. lignorum, its pattern of spread on the West Coast is not known. However, in 1949-51, it was found throughout California at La Jolla, Los Angeles-Long Beach Harbors, Port Hueneme, Santa Barbara Harbor, Morro Bay, Tomales Bay, Bodega Harbor, and Humboldt Bay (Barnard 1950; Menzies 1957; Wallour 1960). It was collected in Elkhorn Slough in 1935 (MacGinitie 1935, cited by Carlton 1979; Wasson et al. 2001) and in Monterey Bay by 1960 (Wallour 1960; Carlton 1979). Crescent City, California, is the current northern range limit for this species on the Pacific Coast (Lee and Miller, in Morris et al. 1980).

Invasion History Elsewhere in the World:

In the Northeast Atlantic, the presence of this species was not recognized until after its descriptions by Holthuis (1949b) and Menzies (1957). However, examination of preserved samples showed that L. quadripunctata was present in Plymouth, England, by 1930 (Jones 1963). In England, L. quadripunctata was present on the English Channel coast and in the Irish Sea as far north as Dublin, the Isle of Man, and Barrow-in-Furness (~54 N) (Jones 1963). It is also known from the Channel Islands (Jones 1963), the coast of Portugal (Noltin 1995, cited by Junoy and Castelló 2003; Borges et al. 2014c), and in the Mediterranean Sea, the Balearic Islands, Spain (Junoy and Castelló 2003), Banyuls-sur-Mer, France (Borges et al. 2014c) and Trieste, Italy (Menzies and Becker 1957, cited by Cookson 1990). In 2011, it was found in the Azores (Borges and Coata 2014; Borges et al. 2014c). Populations are also known from South Africa, where it is thought to be introduced (Hammersly-Heenan 1897, cited by Griffiths et al. 2011).

In the western Atlantic, L. quadripunctata was found in Bermuda (Wallour 1960) and Belize (in 1985, USNM 1088390, US Museum of Natural History 2009). In the southeast Pacific, L. quadripunctata was found in the wooden hull of a boat, and in suspended wood panels in Valparaiso, Chile in 1967 (Antezana 1968). However, this gribble was later found to be abundant and widespread in Giant Kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) along a wide span of the Chilean coast, and probably a late-Pleistocene colonizer of the region (Haye et al. 2012).


Description

Limnoria quadripunctata is a gribble, a small, marine, wood-boring isopod. Limnoria quadripunctata has a small, nearly cylindrical body. The cephalon (head region) is compressed and ovoid, with lateral eyes. The cephalon is distinct from the pereion (thoracic region) and freely rotates. Antennas 1 and 2 are equally anterior, with an obvious scale on Antenna 1. The flagellum of second antenna has 5 segments. The left mandible incisor lacks teeth, instead forming a projecting rasp-and-file device. Its uropods are greatly reduced, with the exopod much shorter than the endopod, and bearing an apical claw.

The anterior dorsal surface of the pleotelson bears four symmetrically arranged tubercles anteriorly. The lateral and posterior edges are not lined with tubercules. Adults are 3-4 mm long, white to pink in color when alive, and yellow when preserved in alcohol.

This description is based on: Holthuis 1949b, Menzies 1957, Cookson 1990, Brusca et al. 2007, and Castelló 2011.


Taxonomy

Taxonomic Tree

Kingdom:   Animalia
Phylum:   Arthropoda
Subphylum:   Crustacea
Class:   Malacostraca
Subclass:   Eumalacostraca
Superorder:   Peracarida
Order:   Isopoda
Suborder:   Flabellifera
Family:   Limnoriidae
Genus:   Limnoria
Species:   quadripunctata

Synonyms

Limnoria carinata (Hicks, 1988)

Potentially Misidentified Species

Limnoria lignorum
Limnoria lignorum has a circumboreal distribution in the northern Atlantic and Pacific, and is presumed to be native throughout this range (Menzies 1957).

Limnoria tripunctata
Limnoria tripunctata is widespread and cryptogenic in most warm-temperate and tropical seas. It is introduced on the West Coast of North America, Hawaii, South Africa, New Zealand, and the British Isles (Menzies 1957; Jones 1963; Carlton 1979; Cranfield et al. 1998; Carlton and Eldredge 2009; Mead et al. 2011b).

Limnoria tuberculata
Limnoria tuberculata has been variously synonymized with or treated as a separate species from L. tripunctata. It was described from the Black Sea by Sowinsky in 1884. Menzies (1972) identified an apparently reproductively isolated population from Chatham, Massachusetts, as this species. Kensley and Schotte (Kensley and Schotte 1987; Kensley and Schotte 1989) have treated this name as the senior synonym of L. tripunctata, but used 'L. tripunctata' in Kensley et al. (1995). However, Cookson (1990) and Castelló (2011) treat L. tuberculata as a separate species. If it is a distinct species, its records are few and scattered, and little is known of its biology.

Ecology

General:

Limnoria quadripunctata is a gribble - a specialized wood-boring isopod. Sexes are separate and copulation is internal. Typically, in Limnoria spp., a single pair occupies a tunnel, with the female closer to the opening. The young are brooded by the female (Becker 1971). Limnoria quadripunctata in San Francisco Bay had an average brood size of 9.5 young per female (Kofoid and Miller 1927, cited by Eltringham and Hockley 1963). In England, Eltringham and Hockley (1963) found that L. quadripunctata boring in fresh test blocks had more young (11.4 young per female) than animals living in established pilings (4.7 per female).

Limnoria quadripunctata prefers temperate climates and marine salinities. Reproduction occurs at 12-19C, but development was unsuccessful at 25C (Jones 1963; Eltringham 1967). In experiments, this gribble had good survival at salinities of 36-48 PSU, but poor (15-50%) at 18 and 24 PSU (Eltringham 1961). Adults and juveniles swarm seasonally, and colonize new pieces of wood. They prefer rough surfaces of relatively soft wood, preferably infected by fungi (Becker 1971). In Southampton Water, England, migration began in spring at about 10C (Eltringham and Hockley 1963). Limnoria spp. digest non-cellulosic carbohydrates in wood, together with some cellulose, and excrete lignin in pellets, without the aid of gut microflora (Becker 1971; Sleeter et al. 1978). Limnoria spp. host a variety of protozoan epibionts and crustacean symbionts. At least one epibiont, the ciliate Mirofolliculina limnoriae slows the feeding, swimming and growth of Limnoria spp., and is regarded as an ectoparasite (Delgery et al. 2006).

Food:

Decaying wood and associated microbiota

Trophic Status:

Herbivore

Herb

Habitats

General HabitatCoarse Woody DebrisNone
General HabitatMarinas & DocksNone
General HabitatVessel HullNone
Salinity RangePolyhaline18-30 PSU
Salinity RangeEuhaline30-40 PSU
Tidal RangeLow IntertidalNone
Vertical HabitatEpibenthicNone


Tolerances and Life History Parameters

Minimum Salinity (‰)24~50% survival for 65 days at 24 PSU, ~15% survival at 18 (Eltringham 1961)
Maximum Salinity (‰)48Experimental, Eltringham 1961
Minimum Reproductive Temperature12Jones 1963 (Field data)
Maximum Reproductive Temperature19Eggs did not reach hatching stage at 25 C (Eltringham 1967).
Maximum Length (mm)3.4Menzies 1957
Broad Temperature RangeNoneCold temperate-Warm temperate
Broad Salinity RangeNonePolyhaline-Euhaline

General Impacts

Limnoria quadripunctata is a wood-boring organism that damages wooden pilings and ship hulls in warm-temperate to tropical marine waters, around the world. It is rare or absent in ports where salinity drops below 20 PSU (Becker 1971; Lum 1981). Gribbles burrow long tunnels, about 1-2 mm in diameter, below the surface of wood, perforating it. Up to 30 Limnoria may live below one cm2 of wood surface. When the wood is thoroughly perforated, it is eroded by waves, and the borers penetrate further. Gribbles have a high oxygen requirement, so that boring is limited to the outer regions of wood. Part of the economic cost of these organisms is the cost and ecological damage of preventive measures, including the use of resistant tropical wood and chemical treatments for marinas, docks, and wooden boats to prevent damage by borers (Becker 1971; Coughlan 1977).

Economic Impacts

Shipping- Gribble damage to piers in San Francisco Bay was first reported in 1873, and was probably due to L. quadripunctata (Arnold 1873, cited by Carlton 1979; Cohen and Carlton 1995). In Swansea, Wales and Southampton Water, England, heated discharges of power plants prolonged the breeding period of Limnoria quadripunctata and L. tripunctata, increasing damage to wooden docks (Raymont 1976; Coughlan 1977). In Southampton Water, boring by the two Limnoria species removed 6-13% of untreated wooded test blocks (Coughlan 1977).

Regional Impacts

NEP-VNorthern California to Mid Channel IslandsEconomic ImpactShipping/Boating
Gribble damage to piers in San Francisco Bay was first reported in 1873, and was probably due to L. quadripunctata (Arnold 1873, cited by Carlton 1979).
P090San Francisco BayEconomic ImpactShipping/Boating
Gribble damage to piers in San Francisco Bay was first reported in 1873, and was probably due to L. quadripunctata (Arnold 1873, cited by Carlton 1979).
CACaliforniaEconomic ImpactShipping/Boating
Gribble damage to piers in San Francisco Bay was first reported in 1873, and was probably due to L. quadripunctata (Arnold 1873, cited by Carlton 1979)., Gribble damage to piers in San Francisco Bay was first reported in 1873, and was probably due to L. quadripunctata (Arnold 1873, cited by Carlton 1979).

Regional Distribution Map

Bioregion Region Name Year Invasion Status Population Status
P143 _CDA_P143 (Smith) 1980 Non-native Established
P065 _CDA_P065 (Santa Barbara Channel) 1951 Non-native Established
P070 Morro Bay 1951 Non-native Established
P050 San Pedro Bay 1950 Non-native Established
P062 _CDA_P062 (Calleguas) 1949 Non-native Established
P022 _CDA_P022 (San Diego) 1949 Non-native Established
P112 _CDA_P112 (Bodega Bay) 1949 Non-native Established
P130 Humboldt Bay 1949 Non-native Established
NEP-IV Puget Sound to Northern California 1949 Non-native Established
NEP-VI Pt. Conception to Southern Baja California 1949 Non-native Established
P110 Tomales Bay 1948 Non-native Established
P080 Monterey Bay 1935 Non-native Established
P090 San Francisco Bay 1873 Non-native Established
NEP-V Northern California to Mid Channel Islands 1873 Non-native Established

Occurrence Map

OCC_ID Author Year Date Locality Status Latitude Longitude
697069 Menzies 1957 1949 1949-03-11 Samoa (Humboldt Bay) Non-native 40.8195 -124.1787
698251 Cohen et al. 2005 (SF Bay Area RAS) 2004 2004-05-23 Pier 39, San Francisco Bay Non-native 37.8114 -122.4098
699020 Menzies 1957 1950 Monterey Bay Non-native 36.6994 -121.8583
699023 Menzies 1957 1949 Monterey Bay Non-native 36.6994 -121.8583
700294 Menzies 1957 1949 Bodega Harbor Non-native 38.3262 -123.0495
700978 MacGinitie 1935 1935 Elkhorn Slough General Location Non-native 36.8086 -121.7856
700979 Menzies 1957 1949 Elkhorn Slough General Location Non-native 36.8086 -121.7856
701110 Anonymous 1875; Cohen and Carlton 1995 1873 Greenwich Dock, San Francisco Bay Non-native 37.8045 -122.4022
701816 Introduced Species Study 2010 2010-06-02 Ballena Bay Non-native 37.7661 -122.2834
702126 Menzies 1957, 1958 1949 Belvedere (Station 5 [called Tiburon in Table 1]) Non-native 37.8791 -122.4736
702491 Menzies 1951; Carlton 1979a; Cohen and Carlton 1995; National Museum of Natural History, Invertebrat 1876 San Diego Bay Non-native 32.6717 -117.1439
702906 Boyd et al. 2002 (Humboldt Bay Report) 2002 Bracut Non-native 40.8313 -124.0845
702919 Menzies 1957 1949 Santa Barbara Non-native 34.4057 -119.6913
703234 Menzies 1957 1949 Port Hueneme Non-native 34.1496 -119.2082
703419 Menzies 1951a; 1957 1949 La Jolla Non-native 32.8479 -117.2776
703715 Introduced Species Study 2006 2006-11-01 North Harbor/Boat Launch Non-native 36.8128 -121.7880
704412 Menzies 1957 1949 Tomales Bay Non-native 38.2100 -122.9400
704420 U.S. National Museum of Natural History Database 1948 1948-08-18 Hamlet (Station PMS2), Tomales Bay Non-native 38.2069 -122.9259
704421 U.S. National Museum of Natural History Database 1947 1947-11-10 N of White's Cove (Station 7), Tomales Bay Non-native 38.2006 -122.9435
704685 Menzies and Mohr 1952 1950 1950-02-01 Ward's Landing, Morro Bay (Station 1) Non-native 35.3681 -120.8545
704692 Menzies and Mohr 1952 1947 Ward's Landing, Morro Bay (Station 1) Non-native 35.3681 -120.8545
704697 Menzies and Mohr 1952 1949 Ward's Landing, Morro Bay (Station 1) Non-native 35.3681 -120.8545
760485 Mendell 1871, cited in Menzies et al. 1963 1871 Los Angeles/Long Beach Harbor Complex Non-native 33.7632 -118.2526
760486 Kofoid and Miller 1923; 1927 1922 1922-11-19 Old Fish Cannery Wharf, Los Angeles Harbor Non-native 33.7405 -118.2748
760487 Kofoid and Miller 1923 1922 Los Angeles Harbor Non-native 33.7269 -118.2623
760488 Kofoid and Miller 1923 1922 Charles R. McCormick Lumber Company Wharf, San Diego Non-native 32.6998 -117.1534
760489 Neily and Kirkbride 1927 1927 Long Beach [Harbor] Non-native 33.7552 -118.2157
760490 Menzies 1957 1947 1947-07-22 Monterey Bay Non-native 36.6994 -121.8583
760491 Menzies 1957 1949 1949-04-12 Duxbury [sic] Non-native 37.8941 -122.7021
760492 Menzies 1957, 1958 1949 North West Pacific Railroad Ferry Landing (Station 6) Non-native 37.8727 -122.4554
760493 Menzies 1957, 1958 1949 Sausalito (Station 7) Non-native 37.8562 -122.4775
760494 Menzies 1957, 1958 1949 Aquatic Park, San Francisco (Station 8) Non-native 37.8087 -122.4242
760495 Menzies 1957, 1958 1949 Goat [Yerba Buena] Island (Station 9) Non-native 37.8148 -122.3591
760496 Menzies 1957, 1958 1949 India Basin [Discharge Channel] (Station 10) Non-native 37.7379 -122.3747
760497 Menzies 1958 1949 Berkeley Yacht Harbor (Station 16) Non-native 37.8666 -122.3151
760498 Menzies 1957, 1958 1949 Parr-Richmond Pier (Station 17) Non-native 37.3644 -122.3644
760499 Menzies 1957, 1958 1949 Richmond Ferry Landing (Station 18) Non-native 37.9081 -122.3927
760500 Barnard 1950 1949 1949-04-28 Sausalito Non-native 37.8616 -122.4846
760501 Barnard 1950 1949 1949-04-30 Tiburon (Northwestern Pacific Railway Ferry) Non-native 37.8725 -122.4555
760502 Menzies 1957 1950 Hunters Point Non-native 37.7226 -122.3594
760503 Menzies and Mohr 1952 1950 1950-02-01 Embayment between White Point and Fairbaink Point, Morro Bay (Station 2) Non-native 35.3495 -120.8436
760504 Menzies and Mohr 1952 1950 1950-02-03 Embayment at N edge of Baywood Park, Morro Bay (Station 6) Non-native 35.3314 -120.8373
760505 Menzies and Mohr 1952 1950 1950-02-02 Private Pier off Baywood Estates Park, Morro Bay (Station 7) Non-native 35.3267 -120.8413
760506 Menzies and Mohr 1952 1950 1950-02-02 Private Piers, Cuesta-by-the-Sea, Morro Bay (Station 8) Non-native 35.3220 -120.8490
760507 Menzies 1957 1950 1950-09-08 Berkeley Yacht Harbor Non-native 37.8664 -122.3150
760508 Menzies 1958; Menzies et al 1963 1951 Pontoon Bridge between Terminal Island and Long Beach (Station E) Non-native 33.7646 -118.2211
760509 Menzies 1958; Menzies et al 1963 1951 Los Angeles Harbor, U.S. Navy Operations Base (Station F) Non-native 33.7522 -118.2387
760510 Menzies 1958; Menzies et al 1963 1951 Long Beach Harbor Pilot Jetty (Station G) Non-native 33.7473 -118.2157
760511 Menzies 1958; Menzies et al 1963 1951 Reeves Field Seaplane Hangar Bay (Station H) Non-native 33.7460 -118.2537
760512 Menzies 1958; Menzies et al 1963 1951 Fish Harbor Inner Breakwater (Station J) Non-native 33.7353 -118.2662
760513 Menzies 1958; Menzies et al 1963 1951 Lighthouse Wharf, Los Angeles Harbor Entrance (Station K) Non-native 33.7085 -118.2522
760514 Menzies 1958; Menzies et al 1963 1951 500 feet south of Boy Scouts of America Explorer Base (Station L) Non-native 33.7147 -118.2845
760515 Menzies 1958; Menzies et al 1963 1951 Los Angeles Harbor, Berth 70 Municipal Wharf (Station N) Non-native 33.7243 -118.2724
760516 Menzies 1958; Menzies et al 1963 1951 Berth 236, under Small Boat Fueling Wharf (Station P) Non-native 33.7370 -118.2746
760517 Barnard 1955 1951 California Yacht Basin (Outer Los Angeles Harbor) Non-native 33.7180 -118.2791
760518 Mohr 1959 1959 Eureka Non-native 40.8063 -124.1613
760519 Mohr 1959 1959 Crescent City Non-native 41.7459 -124.1910
760520 Mohr 1959; Carlton 1979a 1959 Port Hueneme Non-native 34.1496 -119.2082
760521 Mohr et al. 1963 1963 Morro Bay Non-native 35.3500 -120.8500
760522 Schafer 1966 1966 Los Angeles Harbor Non-native 33.7269 -118.2623
760523 Haderlie 1968 1967 Monterey Municipal Wharf No. 2 Non-native 36.6053 -121.8895
760524 Haderlie 1969 1968 Monterey Municipal Wharf No. 2 Non-native 36.6053 -121.8895
760525 National Museum of Natural History Database 1968 1968-08-02 Port Hueneme Non-native 34.1496 -119.2082
760526 Haderlie 1983 1970 Monterey Municipal Wharf No. 2 Non-native 36.6053 -121.8895
760527 Carlton 1979a 1973 Hyde Street Pier Non-native 37.8092 -122.4217
760528 California Academy of Sciences Invertebrate Zoology Collection Database 1973 1973-12-03 S of San Mateo Bridge (Station SB-B) Non-native 37.5745 -122.2242
760529 Standing et al. 1975 1975 Bodega Harbor Non-native 38.3262 -123.0495
760530 Haderlie 1983 1982 Monterey Municipal Wharf No. 2 Non-native 36.6053 -121.8895

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