Invasion History

First Non-native North American Tidal Record: 1949
First Non-native West Coast Tidal Record: 2006
First Non-native East/Gulf Coast Tidal Record: 1949

General Invasion History:

Ostrea edulis, the European Oyster, is native to the northeast Atlantic from Norway to Morocco, and the Mediterranean and Black Seas (Carriker and Gaffney 1992). Over this range, it shows some genetic variation, with some clustering of Atlantic and Mediterranean stocks, and strong divergence of Black Sea populations (Launey et al. 2002). This oyster has been cultivated in European waters since before Roman times. It has been introduced and is established on the East Coast of North America, and is widely cultured on the West Coast (Welch 1966; Carlton 1979; Conte 1996), in Australia (Morton et al. 2003), and Japan (Iwasaki 2005). Local breeding populations are established in South Africa (Griffiths et al. 2009) and Australia (Morton et al. 2003). Individuals have been found in the wild in British Columbia (Gillespie, 2007), but it is not clear if populations are established.

North American Invasion History:

Invasion History on the West Coast:

The successful introduction of O. edulis to Maine led to trials in Puget Sound, Washington in 1951, and subsequent plantings as far southward as Morro Bay, California (CA) as late as 1965. These plantings were unsuccessful at establishing populations, but hatchery-based culture continues, though at much smaller scales than that of the Pacific Oyster (Crassostrea gigas) (Carlton 1979; Conte 1996). It is also cultured on a small scale in British Columbia (BC). Recruited individuals were found in 2006 in Barkley Sound, BC (Gillespie, 2007), but these may have been from larvae drifting from mariculture farms.

Invasion History on the East Coast:

Ostrea edulis was introduced to East Coast waters by the US Bureau of Fisheries to provide an oyster that could support fisheries in waters too cold to support the native Eastern Oyster (Crassostrea virignica) (Loosanoff 1955). In 1949, European Oysters were planted in Milford Harbor, Connecticut (CT), in Long Island Sound (where the native oyster was abundant). Some of these oysters were then transplanted that year to three cold-water locations in Maine, including Harpswell, on Casco Bay, Boothbay Harbor, and Frenchman Bay (Loosanoff 1955; Welch 1966). Successful development of larvae was seen in Connecticut and Maine. Subsequent efforts were focused on Maine waters, with additional transplants of oysters from the Netherlands in the 1950s (Welch 1966). By 1962, successful settlement of O. edulis was seen from Casco Bay to the Damariscotta River (Welsh 1966). In the 1970s, several more transplants were made by aquaculturists and universities in Casco Bay. By 1982, populations were substantial, and considered sufficient to support limited commercial fisheries (Heinig and Tarbox 1985; Hidu and Lavoie 1991). However, populations in Maine have been subject to die-offs due to the protozoan parasite Bonamia ostreae (Elston et al. 1986; Barber and Davis 1994). Natural dispersal, fouling, ballast water, and unofficial transplants may have spread this oyster southward. By the mid-1980s, this oyster was found in Ninigret Pond, on the south coast of Rhode Island (Carlton 1992). Rare individuals have been found since 2005 in Noank, CT, in Fishers Island Sound, but no established populations are yet known west of Rhode Island (James T. Carlton, personal communication 2005). It probably spread southward in the Gulf of Maine earlier – by 2000-2007 O. edulis was present in Great Bay and the Isles of Shoals (NH-ME) (Harris and Dijkstra, 2007; MIT Sea Grant 2007), Gloucester Harbor, Salem Harbor, and Boston Harbor (Bell et al. 2005; MIT Sea Grant 2007).

Early attempts were made to introduce O. edulis from Wales to Prince Edward Island, Canada in 1957-1959, but all of these oysters died. Later attempts at hatchery rearing in Atlantic Canada used oysters from the Netherlands. A number of small populations were established in sheltered bays in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia – the largest is in Lake Lockhart, New Brunswick, on the Bay of Fundy (Hidu and Lavoie 1991; Vercaemer et al. 2003; Bataller et al. 2006). Smaller settlements occur near aquaculture operations on the Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia – one near Sambro, appears to be self-sustaining. Winter survival and summer recruitment in Atlantic Canada is probably limited by low temperatures (Vercaemer et al. 2003; Bataller et al. 2006).

Invasion History Elsewhere in the World:

Ostrea edulis is highly regarded as food, but has not been cultured as widely as the Pacific Oyster (Crassostrea gigas), possibly because of its narrower tolerances, greater susceptibility to diseases, and lower productivity (Ruesink et al. 2005). It is cultured in Japan, South Africa, Namibia, and Mauritius (Iwasaki 2006; Ruesink et al. 2005). It was introduced to South Africa for aquaculture in 1946. An early population in the Knysna estuary died out, but a small breeding population has persisted in some oyster ponds in Alexander Bay (Griffiths et al. 2009; Haupt et al. 2010). Surprisingly, Ostrea edulis was found on the southwest coast of Australia, near Albany, Western Australia, and identified by molecular means, although it was not known to be cultured in the region. This could have been an introduction by ship fouling or ballast water (Morton et al. 2003).


Description

Ostrea edulis has a roughly circular, or broadly oval, shell, occasionally with a distinct hooked beak. The upper (right) valve bears conspicuous concentric lamellae (layers) on the outer surface. The left shell is concave and fixed to the substratum. Inside the hinge are crenulations (known as chomata) that vary from strong and easily seen with the naked eye, to subtle inconspicuous bumps, to being absent, the latter situation resulting from overgrowth of the chomata by additional shell layers in older specimens. The shell is flat, grayish-white, and has a large white muscle scar on both valves. It grows to a maximum size of 200 mm, but is rarely larger than 110 mm (Abbott 1974; Coan et al. 2000; Coan and Valentich-Scott, in Carlton 2007; Food and Agriculture Organization 2011). Larvae settle at a size of 280-300 µm (Food and Agriculture Organization 2011).


Taxonomy

Taxonomic Tree

Kingdom:   Animalia
Phylum:   Mollusca
Class:   Bivalvia
Subclass:   Pteriomorphia
Order:   Ostreoida
Family:   Ostreidae
Genus:   Ostrea
Species:   edulis

Synonyms

Ostrea adriatica (Lamarck, 1818)
Ostrea taurica (Krynicki, 1837)
Ostrea boblayei (Deshayes, 1833)
Ostrea corbuloides (Danilo & Sandri, 1855)
Ostrea cristata (Poli, 1795)
Ostrea cumana (Gregorio, 1883)
Ostrea cyrnusi (Payraudeau, 1826)
Ostrea depressa (Philippi, 1836)
Ostrea exalbida (Gmelin, 1791)
Ostrea hippopus (Lamarck, 1819)
Ostrea lamellosa (Brocchi, 1814)
Ostrea leonica (Fréminville in Taslé, 1870)
Ostrea parasitica (Turton, 1819)
Ostrea rostrata (Gmelin, 1791)
Ostrea saxatilis (Turton, 1807)
Ostrea scaeva (Monterosato, 1915)
Ostrea striatum (da Costa, 1778)
Ostrea sublamellosa ( Milachewitch, 1916)
Ostrea vulgare (da Costa, 1778)

Potentially Misidentified Species

Crassostrea gigas
Pacific Oyster, native to northwest Pacific

Crassostrea virginica
Eastern Oyster, native to northwest Atlantic

Ostrea conchaphila
Native to tropical east Pacific, Baja California southward, distinct from O. lurida (Polson et al. 2009)

Ostrea lurida
Olympic Oyster, native to northeast Pacific (Polson et al. 2009)

Ecology

General:

Ostrea edulis, like other oysters, is a protandric hermaphrodite, maturing first as a male and then becoming female in subsequent seasons. Males release sperm into the water column, while females brood eggs in their gills, where fertilization occurs. Larvae are brooded and released as shelled veligers. Each veliger feeds on phytoplankton, and grows, eventually developing a foot and becoming a pediveliger, competent for settlement. In laboratory culture, larval settlement occurred at about 8-26 days at 17.5 to 27.5?C (Davis and Calabrese 1969). Adult C. gigas feed on phytoplankton of 6-32 um with ~100% retention efficiency, but are less efficient with smaller organisms (Nielsen et al. 2016). Adult oysters are reported to grow to 200 mm, although 110 mm in length is a more typical maximum (Carriker and Gaffney 1996; Abbott 1974; Coan and Valentich-Scott, in Carlton 2007; Food and Agriculture Organization 2011).

Ostrea edulis is characteristic of protected coastal waters in Europe. This oyster normally grows at salinities of 22-35 PSU (Black Sea populations live at ~ 18 PSU), and can tolerate brief exposures to salinities as low as 15 PSU (Davis and Ansell 1962). It tolerates a very wide temperature range, from below 5 to 30?C, although temperatures over 25?C are stressful (Newell et al. 1977).

Food:

Phytoplankton, detritus

Consumers:

Crabs, whelks, starfish, humans, parasites

Trophic Status:

Suspension Feeder

SusFed

Habitats

General HabitatCoarse Woody DebrisNone
General HabitatOyster ReefNone
General HabitatMarinas & DocksNone
General HabitatRockyNone
General HabitatVessel HullNone
Salinity RangePolyhaline18-30 PSU
Salinity RangeEuhaline30-40 PSU
Tidal RangeSubtidalNone
Tidal RangeLow IntertidalNone
Vertical HabitatEpibenthicNone

Life History


Tolerances and Life History Parameters

Minimum Temperature (ºC)5Lowest tested (Newell et al. 1977)
Maximum Temperature (ºC)30Highest tested (Newell et al. 1977)
Minimum Salinity (‰)15Experimental (Davis and Ansell 1962)
Maximum Salinity (‰)38Based on occurrences in Mediterranean
Minimum Reproductive Temperature13Field observations, Europe, varies geographically (Hidu and Lavoie 1991).
Maximum Reproductive Temperature25Field observations, Europe, varies geographically (Hidu and Lavoie 1991).
Minimum Reproductive Salinity22.5Field and experimental observations, Europe, varies geographically (Hidu and Lavoie 1991).
Maximum Reproductive Salinity40Field and experimental observations, Europe, varies geographically (Hidu and Lavoie 1991).
Minimum Duration8Larval duration, Europe, 13-23 C, (Korriga 1941, cited by Hidu and Lavoie 1991)
Maximum Duration26Larval duration, Davis and Calabrese 1969
Maximum Length (mm)200(Abbott 1974; Coan and Valentich-Scott, in Carlton 2007; Food and Agriculture Organization 2011)
Broad Temperature RangeNoneCold temperate-Warm temperate
Broad Salinity RangeNonePolyhaline-Euhaline

General Impacts

Ostrea edulis, the European Flat Oyster, has been cultured in some locations, and has become introduced and established in a few locations around the world (Ruesink et al. 2005), but has become abundant enough to support a wild fishery only in Maine (Heinig and Tarbox 1985; Hidu and Lavoie 1991). Impacts on native species have not been reported.

Economic Impacts

Fisheries- Ostrea edulis, the European Flat Oyster (often called Belon, after a French town known for the quality of its oysters), is highly regarded for flavor, but is slower-growing and more prone to disease than the Pacific Oyster (Crassostrea gigas) (Conte 1996; Ruesink et al. 2005; Morse 2011). It tends to be cultured on much smaller scales than C. gigas or Blue Mussels (Mytilus edulis or M. galloprovincialis). In Maine, they are regarded as difficult to raise, because of periodic die-offs due to the parasite Bonamia ostreae, the erratic release of their brooded larvae, and problems from fouling organisms. Ongoing research is being done to improve culture methods (Morse 2011).

Ecological Impacts

Parasite/Predator Vector- Ostrea edulis is subject to many diseases, of which Bonamia ostreae is probably the most serious. The geographic origin and original host(s) of Bonamia is/are unknown. Although it was first described from Brittany, France (Pichot et al. 1979), infections of O. edulis in Europe, Washington, Maine, and California appear to have originated in a hatchery (closed sometime before 1966) in Elkhorn Slough, California (Elston et al. 1986; Friedman et al. 1989). The Olympic Oyster (O. lurida), native to the West Coast, was once suspected as the original host. However, O. lurida could not be infected with B. ostreae in experiments (Arzul et al. 2005, Fisheries and Oceans Canada 2007 http://www.pac.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/sci/shelldis/pages/bonostoy_e.htm). This parasite is primarily a threat to populations of O. edulis, including populations in Europe, which were being restored using stock from West Coast hatcheries (Pichot et al. 1979; Englesma et al. 2007); introduced populations in Maine (Elston et al. 1986); and cultured populations in California, Maine, and British Columbia (Friedmam et al. 1989; Marty et al. 2006; Morse 2011). Several other species of oysters, including Crassostrea ariakensis are prone to infestations of Bonamia, but these appear to be due to species other than B. ostreae (Burreson et al. 2004). Transmission of Bonamia ostreae and other parasites is an important consideration in aquaculture or restoration activities involving O. edulis.


Regional Impacts

NEP-VNorthern California to Mid Channel IslandsEconomic ImpactFisheries
Ostrea edulis is cultured on a small scale in California, using oysters reared in hatcheries (Conte 1996).
NEP-IVPuget Sound to Northern CaliforniaEconomic ImpactFisheries
Ostrea edulis is cultured on a small scale in Willapa Bay, WA (Ruesink 2007 http://depts.washington.edu/jlrlab/shellfishindustry.php) using oysters reared in hatcheries.
CACaliforniaEconomic ImpactFisheries
Ostrea edulis is cultured on a small scale in California, using oysters reared in hatcheries (Conte 1996).

Regional Distribution Map

Bioregion Region Name Year Invasion Status Population Status
P130 Humboldt Bay 1964 Def Failed
P080 Monterey Bay 1964 Def Failed
NEP-IV Puget Sound to Northern California 1964 Def Failed
P070 Morro Bay 1963 Def Failed
P090 San Francisco Bay 1962 Def Failed
P100 Drakes Estero 1962 Def Failed
NEP-V Northern California to Mid Channel Islands 1956 Def Failed
P110 Tomales Bay 1956 Def Failed

Occurrence Map

OCC_ID Author Year Date Locality Status Latitude Longitude
697222 ISS 2000-2002 Survey Data 2001 2001-09-18 Humboldt Bay Epifaunal 07 Def 40.7976 -124.1862
697292 Introduced Species Study 2010 2010-06-11 Cal Maritime Academy/Vallejo Def 38.0661 -122.2299
697419 Introduced Species Study 2011 2011-04-19 Newport Bay Harbor Entrance Def 33.5974 -117.8798
697669 ISS 2000-2002 Survey Data 2001 2001-08-14 Dana Point Epifaunal 02 Def 33.4599 -117.7025
697757 ISS 2000-2002 Survey Data 2001 2001-10-09 San Diego Bay Commercial Fishing Fleet Def 32.7109 -117.1739
697902 Introduced Species Study 2010 2010-06-02 Port of Oakland Office Def 37.7954 -122.2804
698116 Introduced Species Study 2011 2011-05-04 Hilton Resort Dock Def 32.7788 -117.2127
698668 ISS 2000-2002 Survey Data 2001 2001-10-09 Marine Terminal (Paco) Def 32.6584 -117.1191
698669 Introduced Species Study 2011 2011-05-03 Marine Terminal (Paco) Def 32.6584 -117.1191
698832 ISS 2000-2002 Survey Data 2001 2001-08-14 Oceanside Epifaunal 04 Def 33.2087 -117.3949
699207 Introduced Species Study 2010 2010-06-03 Treasure Island Def 37.8149 -122.3702
699602 ISS 2000-2002 Survey Data 2001 2001-10-09 Bulk Carrier Terminal Def 32.6969 -117.1526
699795 ISS 2000-2002 Survey Data 2001 2001-10-09 Coronado Wharf Def 32.6992 -117.1684
700020 Introduced Species Study 2010 2010-07-12 Cruise Ship Pier Def 37.8085 -122.4060
700103 Introduced Species Study 2011 2011-05-05 Middle Harbor Yacht Slip Def 33.2106 -117.3960
700439 ISS 2000-2002 Survey Data 2001 2001-08-16 Long Beach Epifaunal 04 Def 33.7709 -118.2113
701434 Introduced Species Study 2010 2010-06-30 Hercules Wharf Def 38.0231 -122.2928
701878 Introduced Species Study 2011 2011-05-05 Ocean Institute Dock Def 33.4622 -117.7063
701996 ISS 2000-2002 Survey Data 2001 2001-10-10 America's Cup Harbor Def 32.7239 -117.2240
702074 Introduced Species Study 2010 2010-07-01 Corinthian Marina Def 37.8726 -122.4563
702207 ISS 2000-2002 Survey Data 2001 2001-10-09 Chula Vista Marina Def 32.6225 -117.1023
702449 ISS 2000-2002 Survey Data 2001 2001-09-19 Tomales Bay Epifaunal 03 Def 38.1511 -122.8887
702531 ISS 2000-2002 Survey Data 2001 2001-10-10 Mission Bay Epifaunal 01 Def 32.7791 -117.2128
702557 Introduced Species Study 2011 2011-06-29 Eureka Boat Launch Def 40.8040 -124.1766
702883 Introduced Species Study 2011 2011-04-22 NW Corner of Harbor Def 33.9830 -118.4564
702939 Introduced Species Study 2011 2011-06-02 Golden Hinde Small Marina Def 38.1078 -122.8623
703040 Introduced Species Study 2011 2011-04-21 Long Beach Downtown Marina - ISS Def 33.7594 -118.1866
703146 ISS 2000-2002 Survey Data 2001 2001-07-12 Huntington Harbour Epifaunal 02 Def 33.7175 -118.0658
703296 Introduced Species Study 2010 2010-06-12 China Camp Def 38.0025 -122.4617
703348 ISS 2000-2002 Survey Data 2001 2001-10-09 Coronado Cays Def 32.6274 -117.1329
703444 Introduced Species Study 2011 2011-04-19 Back Bay Marina Def 33.6194 -117.8933
703811 Introduced Species Study 2011 2011-04-20 Fuel Depot Def 33.7440 -118.2358
703882 ISS 2000-2002 Survey Data 2001 2001-09-19 Tomales Bay Epifaunal 01 Def 38.1078 -122.8624
703896 Introduced Species Study 2010 2010-06-30 Rodeo Marina Def 38.0394 -122.2717
703964 ISS 2000-2002 Survey Data 2001 2001-08-14 Oceanside Epifaunal 02 Def 33.2104 -117.3960
703995 Introduced Species Study 2011 2011-04-20 Slip D-50 Def 33.7165 -118.2801
704400 Dahlstrom 1964; Hanna 1966 1956 Tomales Bay, General Location Def 38.2100 -122.9400
760088 Dahlstrom 1964 1962 Drakes Estero, General Location Def 38.0474 -122.9422
760089 Dahlstrom 1964 1962 1962-09-06 Tomales Bay, General Location Def 38.2100 -122.9400
760090 Dahlstrom 1964; H.C. Orcutt, pers. comm., December 1963, in Hanna 1966 1963 Tomales Bay, General Location Def 38.2100 -122.9400
760091 Dahlstrom 1964; H.C. Orcutt, pers. comm., December 1963, in Hanna 1966 1963 Drakes Estero, General Location Def 38.0474 -122.9422
760092 Dahlstrom 1964; H.C. Orcutt, pers. comm., December 1963, in Hanna 1966 1963 Morro Bay, General Location Def 35.3378 -120.8513
760093 Dahlstrom 1964 1964 Humboldt Bay, General Location Def 40.7864 -124.1922
760094 Dahlstrom 1964 1964 Tomales Bay, General Location Def 38.2100 -122.9400
760095 Dahlstrom 1964 1964 Drakes Estero, General Location Def 38.0474 -122.9422
760096 Dahlstrom 1964 1964 Morro Bay, General Location Def 35.3378 -120.8513

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