Invasion History
First Non-native North American Tidal Record: 1936First Non-native West Coast Tidal Record: 1936
First Non-native East/Gulf Coast Tidal Record:
General Invasion History:
Diadumene leucolena is native to the East Coast of North America from Georgia, USA to New Brunswick, Canada (Gosner 1978; Casey 1997). It has been widely introduced with oysters and ship fouling to the West Coast of North America (Coos Bay, Oregon to Newport Bay, California; Carlton 1979), the Pacific Coast of Panama (Reimer 1976), Hawaii (Carlton and Eldredge 2009), Puerto Rico (Yale Peabody Museum 2008), Morocco, the Canary Islands, and Cameroon (Ocaña and Den Hartog 2002).
North American Invasion History:
Invasion History on the West Coast:
Diadumene leucolena was first collected in the Oakland estuary, San Francisco Bay, in 1936, but it may have been introduced with Eastern Oysters (Crassostrea virginica) much earlier. In San Francisco Bay, it is common to abundant in shallow waters in San Pablo, Central, and South Bays (Carlton 1979; Cohen and Carlton 1995; Cohen et al. 2005). It has been found in many other West Coast embayments, including (from North to South): Coos Bay (in 1967, Carlton 1979); Humboldt Bay (in 2000, Boyd et al. 2002); Elkhorn Slough (in 1998, Wasson et al. 2001); Marina del Rey, Santa Monica Bay (Reish 1972, cited by Carlton 1979); Los Angeles-Long Beach Harbors (in 1954, Reish 1959, cited by Carlton 1979); Alamitos, Anaheim, and Newport Bays (Reish 1972, cited by Carlton 1979). Two California records are from open coast locations: Anacapa Island (Channel Islands) (in 1977, USNM 73730, U.S. National Museum of Natural History 2008), and Enderts Beach, Crescent City (in 2003, Warburton 2005, in a sewage outfall).
Invasion History in Hawaii:
Diadumene leucolena may have been present near Honolulu, Oahu as early as the 1950s. It was found by Cuttress in 1977 (cited by Carlton and Eldredge 2009) in Pearl Harbor, Honolulu Harbor, and the Alai Wai Canal.
Invasion History Elsewhere in the World:
Diadumene leucolena was collected in 1962 from La Parguera, Puerto Rico (in 1962, YPM 7652, Yale Peabody Museum 2008). We do not know whether this anemone is established in Puerto Rico or elsewhere in the Caribbean. In the Eastern Atlantic, D. leucolena was found in tide pools at Fuerteventura, in the Canary Islands (in 1994, Ocaña and den Hartog 2002. 'only in mesolittoral pools'). It is also known from Cameroon (as Diadumene kameruniensis, Carlgren 1927, cited by Ocaña and den Hartog 2002), Morocco, and Senegal (Ocaña and den Hartog 2002). These records are most likely due to transport by ship fouling.
In the Pacific, D. leucolena was reportedly abundant in a rocky intertidal community at Paitilla Beach, Panama City, near the Pacific end of the Panama Canal (in 1972, Reimer 1976).
Description
Diadumene leucolena has a column which appears smooth from a distance, but is studded with small dark bumps when looked at closely. When extended, the column of the polyp is 2-5X the width. Some specimens reach 38 mm in height and 12 mm in width. This anemone has acontia, threadlike structures, lined with cnidocytes (cells bearing nematocysts) which extend from the middle lobes of incomplete mesenteries, which partially divide the gastrovascular cavity. The acontia can be extended into the body cavity, or extruded through pores, as a defense in response to disturbance or handling. There are 40-60 tentacles, and there is a substantial tentacle-free zone around the mouth. The tentacles are long and slender when extended. This anemone is usually whitish and translucent, tinted with pale pink, orange, or olive (description from: Gosner 1978; Carlton 1979; Cohen and Carlton 1995; Fautin, in Carlton 2007).
Taxonomy
Taxonomic Tree
| Kingdom: | Animalia | |
| Phylum: | Cnidaria | |
| Class: | Anthozoa | |
| Subclass: | Zoantharia | |
| Order: | Actiniaria | |
| Suborder: | Thenaria | |
| Family: | Diadumenidae | |
| Genus: | Diadumene | |
| Species: | leucolena |
Synonyms
Diadumene kameruniensis (Carlgren, 1927)
Sagartia leucolena (Verrill, 1866)
Potentially Misidentified Species
None
Diadumene sp. 1
None
Ecology
General:
Most sea anemones of the genus Diadumene can reproduce sexually by releasing eggs and sperm into the water, and asexually by longitudinal fission, or by a method called pedal laceration. In pedal laceration, as the anemone moves, a portion of its base is left behind, and grows into a new anemone (Barnes 1983). However, in D. leucolena, asexual reproduction appears to be rare or absent, at least in native populations in East Coast estuaries (Shick and Lamb 1977). Shick and Lamb (1977) suggest that the dominance of sexual reproduction and genetic variation helps the persistence of populations during highly variable conditions, which may completely wipe out clonal populations, such as those of the asexual D. lineata. Hand (1956) suggested that this was also true for West Coast D. leucolena, based on the regular arrangement of the mesenteries, which is disrupted during longitudinal fission.
This anemone is known from estuaries and sheltered waters, where it grows on oysters, rocks, seaweeds, pilings, and floats (Gosner 1978; Carlton 1979; Cohen and Carlton 1995; Casey 1997; Cohen 2005). It can also occur in sheltered tide pools, especially those receiving some freshwater inflow (Fofonoff, personal observations). It is especially tolerant of variable salinity and occurs at salinities as low as 6-7 PSU (Pierce and Minasian 1974; Shick and Lamb 1977; Gosner 1978; Casey 1997). Like other anemones, it feeds by trapping zooplankton and small epibenthic animals with its tentacles (Barnes 1983).
Food:
Zooplankton, small epibenthos
Trophic Status:
Carnivore
CarnHabitats
| General Habitat | Coarse Woody Debris | None |
| General Habitat | Oyster Reef | None |
| General Habitat | Marinas & Docks | None |
| General Habitat | Rocky | None |
| Salinity Range | Mesohaline | 5-18 PSU |
| Salinity Range | Polyhaline | 18-30 PSU |
| Salinity Range | Euhaline | 30-40 PSU |
| Tidal Range | Subtidal | None |
| Tidal Range | Low Intertidal | None |
| Vertical Habitat | Epibenthic | None |
Tolerances and Life History Parameters
| Minimum Temperature (ºC) | 0 | None |
| Minimum Salinity (‰) | 7 | Field observations, Pettaquamscutt River RI, Paul Fofonoff, personal observation |
| Maximum Salinity (‰) | 33 | None |
| Minimum Duration | 5 | Planula larvae were planktonic for at 'least 5 days' at 17.5 C and 25 PSU (Shick and Lamb 1977). |
| Broad Temperature Range | None | Cold temperate-Tropical |
| Broad Salinity Range | None | Mesohaline-Euhaline |
General Impacts
Diadumene leucolena has no reported impacts in its introduced range.Regional Distribution Map
| Bioregion | Region Name | Year | Invasion Status | Population Status |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| P143 | _CDA_P143 (Smith) | 2003 | Def | Estab |
| P130 | Humboldt Bay | 2000 | Def | Estab |
| P080 | Monterey Bay | 1998 | Def | Estab |
| P065 | _CDA_P065 (Santa Barbara Channel) | 1977 | Def | Estab |
| P040 | Newport Bay | 1972 | Def | Estab |
| P060 | Santa Monica Bay | 1972 | Def | Estab |
| NEP-IV | Puget Sound to Northern California | 1967 | Def | Estab |
| P045 | _CDA_P045 (Santa Ana) | 1963 | Def | Estab |
| NEP-VI | Pt. Conception to Southern Baja California | 1954 | Def | Estab |
| P050 | San Pedro Bay | 1954 | Def | Estab |
| NEP-V | Northern California to Mid Channel Islands | 1936 | Def | Estab |
| P093 | _CDA_P093 (San Pablo Bay) | 1936 | Def | Estab |
| P090 | San Francisco Bay | 1936 | Def | Estab |
Occurrence Map
| OCC_ID | Author | Year | Date | Locality | Status | Latitude | Longitude |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 697258 | Cohen et al. 2005 (SF Bay Area RAS) | 2004 | 2004-05-27 | Pete's Harbor, San Francisco Bay | Def | 37.5006 | -122.2242 |
| 697307 | Introduced Species Study | 2005 | 2005-11-14 | Cal Maritime Academy/Vallejo | Def | 38.0661 | -122.2299 |
| 697455 | Boyd et al. 2002 (Humboldt Bay Report) | 2002 | Mad River Slough - Samoa Blvd. Bridge | Def | 40.8652 | -124.1505 | |
| 697532 | Reish 1963a | 1962 | Alamitos Bay | Def | 33.7502 | -118.1185 | |
| 697657 | Boyd et al. 2002 (Humboldt Bay Report) | 2002 | Del Norte Street | Def | 40.7907 | -124.1879 | |
| 698101 | Introduced Species Study | 2010 | 2010-07-29 | San Mateo Bridge | Def | 37.5806 | -122.2543 |
| 698102 | Introduced Species Study | 2005 | 2005-09-09 | San Mateo Bridge | Def | 37.5806 | -122.2543 |
| 698110 | Boyd et al. 2002 (Humboldt Bay Report) | 2002 | Woodley Island, East End | Def | 40.8074 | -124.1601 | |
| 698411 | Cohen et al. 2005 (SF Bay Area RAS) | 2004 | 2004-05-25 | Presidio Yacht Club, San Francisco Bay | Def | 37.8326 | -122.4741 |
| 698617 | Cohen et al. 2005 (SF Bay Area RAS) | 2004 | 2004-05-27 | Coyote Point Marina, San Francisco Bay | Def | 37.5907 | -122.3180 |
| 699007 | Boyd et al. 2002 (Humboldt Bay Report) | 2002 | Woodley Island, West End | Def | 40.8070 | -124.1667 | |
| 699413 | Introduced Species Study | 2005 | 2005-07-06 | Coyote Point | Def | 37.5920 | -122.3210 |
| 699419 | Introduced Species Study | 2010 | 2010-06-13 | Coyote Point | Def | 37.5920 | -122.3210 |
| 699541 | Cohen et al. 2005 (SF Bay Area RAS) | 2004 | 2004-05-26 | Point San Pablo Yacht Harbor, San Pablo Bay | Def | 37.9624 | -122.4188 |
| 699670 | Boyd et al. 2002 (Humboldt Bay Report) | 2002 | Eureka Slough, Lower | Def | 40.8068 | -124.1437 | |
| 700463 | Wasson et al. 2001 (Elkhorn Slough Survey) | 1998 | 1998-07-12 | Elkhorn Slough Station 4 (Vierra's, just SE of Hwy 1 bridge) | Def | 36.8090 | -121.7841 |
| 700639 | Reish 1959b | 1954 | Los Angeles/Long Beach Harbor Complex | Def | 33.7632 | -118.2526 | |
| 700694 | Reish 1972 | 1972 | Huntington Harbour | Def | 33.7216 | -118.0652 | |
| 700731 | Reish 1972 | 1972 | Newport Bay | Def | 33.6092 | -117.9067 | |
| 701251 | Hand 1955 | 1955 | Fruitvale Bridge | Def | 37.7689 | -122.2301 | |
| 701925 | Reish 1972 | 1972 | Anaheim Bay | Def | 33.7333 | -118.0894 | |
| 701948 | Boyd et al. 2002 (Humboldt Bay Report) | 2002 | Fields Landing | Def | 40.7258 | -124.2213 | |
| 702535 | Sander 1936, cited in Carlton 1979 | 1936 | Oakland Estuary, San Francisco Bay | Def | 37.7866 | -122.2654 | |
| 702795 | Wasson et al. 2001 (Elkhorn Slough Survey) | 1998 | Elkhorn Slough Station 7 ("Batillaria Heaven" mud pan on shore of Hummingbird Island) | Def | 36.8244 | -121.7415 | |
| 702909 | Boyd et al. 2002 (Humboldt Bay Report) | 2002 | Bracut | Def | 40.8313 | -124.0845 | |
| 703250 | Introduced Species Study | 2010 | 2010-06-12 | China Camp | Def | 38.0025 | -122.4617 |
| 703307 | Introduced Species Study | 2005 | 2005-06-08 | Yerba Buena | Def | 37.8146 | -122.3712 |
| 703372 | Reish 1972 | 1972 | Marina del Rey | Def | 33.9722 | -118.4522 | |
| 703509 | Boyd et al. 2002 (Humboldt Bay Report) | 2002 | King Salmon Marina | Def | 40.7400 | -124.2170 | |
| 703640 | Cohen et al. 2005 (SF Bay Area RAS) | 2004 | 2004-05-28 | Rodeo Marina, San Pablo Bay | Def | 38.0391 | -122.2711 |
| 703923 | Introduced Species Study | 2005 | 2005-10-19 | Rodeo Marina | Def | 38.0394 | -122.2717 |
| 714345 | United States Nation Museum Collection 2015 (access date) | 1977 | 1977-12-08 | Cat Rock (S side of west Anacapa Island) | Def | 34.0041 | -119.4222 |
| 714377 | Warburton 2005 | 2002 | Enderts Beach, Crescent City | Def | 41.7006 | -124.1431 | |
| 714632 | California Academy of Sciences Collection (accessed 20 May 2015) | 1972 | Coyote Point | Def | 37.7083 | -122.2792 | |
| 714635 | Vassallo 1969 | 1967 | Near east end of San Mateo Bridge | Def | 37.6200 | -122.1570 | |
| 759437 | Hand 1955 | 1955 | Bay Farm Island | Def | 37.7453 | -122.2183 | |
| 759438 | Hand 1955 | 1955 | Richardson Bay | Def | 37.8815 | -122.4842 | |
| 759439 | Hand 1955 | 1955 | Oakland Estuary, San Francisco Bay | Def | 37.7866 | -122.2654 | |
| 759440 | Vassallo 1969 | 1968 | Near east end of San Mateo Bridge | Def | 37.6200 | -122.1570 | |
| 759441 | Reish 1972 | 1972 | Los Angeles/Long Beach Harbor Complex | Def | 33.7632 | -118.2526 | |
| 759442 | Reish 1972 | 1972 | Alamitos Bay | Def | 33.7502 | -118.1185 | |
| 759443 | California Academy of Sciences Collection (accessed 20 May 2015) | 1976 | Little Coyote Point | Def | 37.5720 | -122.2639 | |
| 759444 | Reish et al. 1975 | 1972 | Anaheim Bay, Station 19 | Def | 33.7346 | -118.0784 | |
| 768220 | Ruiz et al., 2015 | 2012 | 2012-09-13 | San Leandro Marina, San Francisco Bay, CA, California, USA | Def | 37.6962 | -122.1919 |
| 771757 | Ruiz et al., 2021a | 2018 | 2018-09-19 | Lake Merritt Boat House, San Francisco Bay, California, USA | Def | 37.8047 | -122.2573 |
| 777494 | Ruiz et al., 2022 | 2015 | 2015-07-27 | Esprit Marina, Marina del Rey, California, USA | Def | 33.9757 | -118.4497 |
| 777502 | Ruiz et al., 2022 | 2015 | 2015-09-21 | Redwood City Marina, San Francisco Bay, California, USA | Def | 37.5022 | -122.2129 |
| 777504 | Ruiz et al., 2022 | 2015 | 2015-09-21 | Redwood City Marina, San Francisco Bay, California, USA | Def | 37.5022 | -122.2129 |
| 777506 | Ruiz et al., 2022 | 2015 | 2015-09-21 | Redwood City Marina, San Francisco Bay, California, USA | Def | 37.5022 | -122.2129 |
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