Invasion History

First Non-native North American Tidal Record: 1938
First Non-native West Coast Tidal Record: 1938
First Non-native East/Gulf Coast Tidal Record:

General Invasion History:

Mytilicola orientalis is a parasitic copepod known from oysters (Crassostrea gigas, Pacific Oyster; Ostrea lurida, Olympia Oyster) and mussels (Mytilus crassitesta, M. edulis, M. trossulus, M. californianus) (Grizel 1985; Goater and Weber 1996). It also parasitizes clams (Protothaca staminea, Pacific Littleneck; Venerupis philippinarum, Japanese Littleneck), and the gastropod Crepidula fornicata (Rankin 1943, cited by Carlton 1979; Bower et al. 1992). It was described in 1935 from the Seto Inland Sea, Japan, from the bivalves C. gigas (Pacific Oyster) and M. crassitesta (the Asian Black Mussel) (Mori 1935, cited by Odlaug 1946). It has been introduced to Western North America from Morro Bay, California to British Columbia (Bernard 1969; Quayle 1969; Carlton 1979) and the Northeast Atlantic from France (Grizel 1985) to Ireland (Steele and Mulcahy 2001), the Netherlands (Stock 1993), and the French Mediterranean Coast (Clanzig 1989).

North American Invasion History:

Invasion History on the West Coast:

Mytilicola orientalis was first reported from North American waters in 1938 from Willapa Bay, Washington (WA) in Crassostrea gigas (Wilson 1938; cited by Carlton 1979). By 1943, it was reported from Puget Sound, WA (Rankin 1943, cited by Carlton 1979; Odlaug 1946). Its pattern of spread is difficult to discern and it was probably introduced to many locations with early plantings of Pacific Oysters around 1902, and not recognized until after the species was described. This parasite has been found in cultured oysters in Morro Bay, Elkhorn Slough, Tomales Bay, and Drakes Estero, California; and Yaquina Bay, Oregon (Hedgpeth 1962, cited by Carlton 1979; Chew 1965; Katkansky et al. 1967; Katkansky and Warner 1974, cited by Carlton 1979). In San Francisco and Humboldt Bays, it was found in Olympia Oysters (O. lurida) and mussels (Mytilus spp.) (Chew et al. 1965, Katkansky et al. 1967, Bradley and Siebert 1978, all cited by Carlton 1979). In southern British Columbia waters, M. orientalis is widespread in the Strait of Georgia and in Barkley Sound on the western side of Vancouver Island, in C. gigas, M. trossulus, and V. phillipinarum (Quayle 1969; Carlton 1979; Bower et al. 1992; Goater and Weber 1996).

Invasion History on the East Coast:

Mytilicola orientalis was first collected in European waters in 1977, in the Bay of Arcachon, France, on the Bay of Biscay (Goulletquer et al. 2002). In 1979, it was found in Marennes-Oleron, also on the Bay of Biscay (Goulletquer et al. 2002) and in the Mediterranean, in the Thau Lagoon, Sette, France (Clanzig 1989). All of these areas are extensively used for Pacific Oyster culture.


Description

The larval nauplius and copepodite stages of Mytilicola orientalis are planktonic, but the adults settle inside the intestine of a bivalve, where they metamorphose into greatly modified sedentary wormlike forms, with their appendages greatly reduced (Grizel 1985; Goater and Weber 1996). The adult female is 10 to 12 mm in length, and 1.33 mm wide at the largest section. The head is separate from the thorax. The antennules have four segments; the antennae have two. The antennae are modified into hooks used to cling to the host's tissue. The thorax consists of five segments with triangular lateral extensions. The genital segment is fused with the thoracic segments. The female produces paired egg sacs about 7 mm length, containing approximately 200 eggs. The abdomen is narrower than the genital segment and ends in two triangular outgrowths (Grizel 1985; Fisheries and Oceans Canada 2009).

The development of M. orientalis is unknown, but is probably similar to that of M. intestinalis, which consists of 2 nauplius stages, 5 copepodite stages, and a pre-adult stage, before metamorphosis into the parasitic adult (Gee and Davey 1986).


Taxonomy

Taxonomic Tree

Kingdom:   Animalia
Phylum:   Arthropoda
Subphylum:   Crustacea
Class:   Maxillopoda
Subclass:   Copepoda
Order:   Cyclopoida
Family:   Mytilicolidae
Genus:   Mytilicola
Species:   orientalis

Synonyms

Mytilicola ostreae (Wilson, 1938)

Potentially Misidentified Species

Mytilicola instestinalis
Mytilicola intestinalis is aprasite primarily of Mytilus sp., native to the Mediterranean and introduced to the North Sea. There are morphological differences, but genetic methods are recommended for identification At least one study has mis-identified M. orientalis as M. intestinalis (Goedknecht et al. 2018).

Mytilicola porrectus
Parasite of Geukensia demissa and Mercenaria mercenaria, described from Louisiana

Ecology

General:

Mytilicola orientalis is a parasitic copepod, capable of infecting a wide range of bivalve molluscs. Its most common host is the Pacific Oyster (Crassostrea gigas), but it is known from Ostrea lurida (Olympic Oyster), O. edulis (European Oyster), Mytilus coruscus (Japanese Black Mussel), M. edulis (Blue Mussel), M. galloprovincialis (Mediterranean Mussel), M. trossulus (Bay Mussel), M. californianus (California Mussel), Protothaca staminea (Pacific Littleneck), Venerupis philippinarum (Japanese Littleneck), and the gastrood Crepidula fornicata (Common Atlantic Slippersnail) (Rankin 1943, cited by Carlton 1979; Grizel 1985; Bower et al. 1992; Goater and Weber 1996). The wormlike adult female and male mate inside the host's intestine. The female produces paired egg sacs which hatch into naupli.

The life cycle of M. orientalis has not been studied, but in the similar M. intestinalis, there are two nauplius stages, and 5 copepodite stages, all non-feeding. The planktonic stages are filtered out by the bivalve, and remain within, developing into parasitic adults (Gee and Davies 1986). Patterns of infection suggest that dispersal distance in mussel beds is usually short, because the intense filtration of the bivalves remove the larvae from the water column. The number of copepods per mussel increases with mussel size, but decreases with tidal height, probably because of less time for infection (Goater and Weber 1996).

Food:

Crassostrea gigas; other bivalves

Trophic Status:

Parasite

Paras

Habitats

General HabitatOyster ReefNone
General HabitatMarinas & DocksNone
General HabitatRockyNone
Salinity RangePolyhaline18-30 PSU
Salinity RangeEuhaline30-40 PSU
Tidal RangeSubtidalNone
Tidal RangeLow IntertidalNone
Tidal RangeMid IntertidalNone
Vertical HabitatEpibenthicNone


Tolerances and Life History Parameters

Minimum Reproductive Salinity9.6~50% hatching (Brenner et al. 2019)
Maximum Length (mm)12Female (Grizel 1985)
Broad Temperature RangeNoneCold temperate-Warm temperate
Broad Salinity RangeNoneMesohaline-Euhaline

General Impacts

The parasitic copepod Mytilicola orientalis infects oysters, mussels, and clams, including such commercially important species as the Pacific Oyster (Crassostrea gigas), Olympic Oyster (Ostrea lurida), European Oyster (O. edulis), Blue Mussel (Mytilus edulis). Impacts of parasitism on oysters appear to be mostly nonlethal, including local damage to intestinal tissue, and decreased condition factors (increased water, decreased fat content) (Odlaug 1946; Bernard 1969; Grizel 1985; Steele and Mulcahy 2001; Fisheries and Oceans Canada 2009). The extent of damage to mussels is unclear, but heavy infections can lead to mortality (Fisheries and Oceans Canada 2009). This parasite was included on a list of the '100 Worst Invaders' in the Mediterranean Sea (Streftaris and Zenetos 2006).

Economic Impacts

Fisheries: Parasitism by Mytilicola orientalis rarely kills oysters, but can lower their condition factor (increased water and decreased fat content), affecting the perceived quality of the oysters (Odlaug 1946; Grizel 1985; Fisheries and Oceans Canada 2009).

Ecological Impacts

Parasitism: Infection by Mytilicola orientalis appears to rarely result in mortality of oysters, but tissue damage to intestinal tissue and scar formation can reduce the efficiency of digestion, and contributes to decreased condtion factor (increased water content, decreased fat) (Odlaug 1946; Katkansky et al. 1967; Grizel 1985; Fisheries and Oceans Canada 2009). These impacts were variable with geography and season (Deslou-Paoli 1981, cited by Fisheries and Oceans Canada 2009). In Ireland, infection by M. orientalis did not directly affect health or quality of Crassostrea gigas, but was associated with increased infestations by shell-boring Polydora spp. (Steele and Mulcahy 2001).

Regional Impacts

NEP-IVPuget Sound to Northern CaliforniaEcological ImpactParasitism
Infection with M. orientalis resulted in reduced condition factor in Olympia Oyster (Ostrea lurida) in Willapa Bay (Oldaug 1946). Reduced condition factor was also reported in infected Pacific Oysters (Crassostrea gigas) in Humboldt, Yaquina, and Willapa Bays. However, no relation was seen between infection and mortality (Chew et al. 1965; Katkansky et al. 1967).
NEP-IVPuget Sound to Northern CaliforniaEconomic ImpactFisheries
Infection resulted in reduced condition factor (increased water, reduced fat) in Olympia Oyster (Ostrea lurida) in Willapa Bay (Oldaug 1946). Reduced condition factor was also reported in infected Pacific Oysters (Crassostrea gigas) in Humboldt, Yaquina, and Willapa Bays. However, no relation was seen between infection and mortality (Chew et al. 1965; Katkansky et al. 1967).
P130Humboldt BayEcological ImpactParasitism
Reduced condition factor was also reported in infected Pacific Oysters (Crassostrea gigas) in Humboldt, Yaquina, and Willapa Bays. However, no relation was seen between infection and mortality (Chew et al. 1965; Katkansky et al. 1967).
P130Humboldt BayEconomic ImpactFisheries
Reduced condition factor was also reported in infected Pacific Oysters (Crassostrea gigas) in Humboldt, Yaquina, and Willapa Bays. However, no relation was seen between infection and mortality (Chew et al. 1965; Katkansky et al. 1967). Reduced condition factor (smaller body mass, higher water content, less fat) reduces the quality of oysters.
NEP-VNorthern California to Mid Channel IslandsEconomic ImpactFisheries

Reduced condition factor of oysters

CACaliforniaEcological ImpactParasitism

Reduced condition factor was also reported in infected Pacific Oysters (Magallana gigas) in Humboldt, Yaquina, and Willapa Bays. However, no relation was seen between infection and mortality (Chew et al. 1965; Katkansky et al. 1967).

CACaliforniaEconomic ImpactFisheries

Reduced condition factor of oysters

Reduced condition factor was also reported in infected Pacific Oysters (Magallana gigas) in Humboldt, Yaquina, and Willapa Bays. However, no relation was seen between infection and mortality (Chew et al. 1965; Katkansky et al. 1967). Reduced condition factor (smaller body mass, higher water content, less fat) reduces the quality of oysters.

Regional Distribution Map

Bioregion Region Name Year Invasion Status Population Status
P080 Monterey Bay 1974 Def Estab
P090 San Francisco Bay 1974 Def Estab
P070 Morro Bay 1974 Def Estab
P100 Drakes Estero 1967 Def Estab
P130 Humboldt Bay 1963 Def Estab
P110 Tomales Bay 1962 Def Estab
NEP-V Northern California to Mid Channel Islands 1962 Def Estab
NEP-IV Puget Sound to Northern California 1938 Def Estab

Occurrence Map

OCC_ID Author Year Date Locality Status Latitude Longitude
697030 Chew et al 1964a 1963 1963-02-19 State Native Oyster Reserve No. 1, Arcata Bay Def 40.8148 -124.1279
697114 Boyd et al. 2002 (Humboldt Bay Report) 2002 Eel River Wildlife Area Def 40.7566 -124.1946
697451 Boyd et al. 2002 (Humboldt Bay Report) 2002 Mad River Slough - Samoa Blvd. Bridge Def 40.8652 -124.1505
697497 Boyd et al. 2002 (Humboldt Bay Report) 2002 Klopp Lake Def 40.8553 -124.0919
697658 Boyd et al. 2002 (Humboldt Bay Report) 2002 Del Norte Street Def 40.7907 -124.1879
697945 Bradley and Siebert 1978 1974 Berkeley Marina, San Francisco Bay Def 37.8664 -122.3150
698262 Boyd et al. 2002 (Humboldt Bay Report) 2002 Hookton Slough Def 40.6775 -124.2218
698654 Boyd et al. 2002 (Humboldt Bay Report) 2002 Samoa Bridge, West Def 40.8218 -124.1702
698655 Boyd et al. 2002 (Humboldt Bay Report) 2002 Samoa Bridge, Middle Def 40.8138 -124.1593
699672 Boyd et al. 2002 (Humboldt Bay Report) 2002 Eureka Slough, Lower Def 40.8068 -124.1437
700061 Boyd et al. 2002 (Humboldt Bay Report) 2002 Southport Landing Def 40.6952 -124.2494
700237 Boyd et al. 2002 (Humboldt Bay Report) 2002 South Eureka Marina Def 40.8017 -124.1807
700660 Boyd et al. 2002 (Humboldt Bay Report) 2002 Hilfiker Road Def 40.7720 -124.1960
700675 Boyd et al. 2002 (Humboldt Bay Report) 2002 Jacoby Creek Def 40.8435 -124.0838
701074 Bradley and Siebert 1978 1930 San Francisco Bay Def 37.8494 -122.3681
701949 Boyd et al. 2002 (Humboldt Bay Report) 2002 Fields Landing Def 40.7258 -124.2213
702833 Boyd et al. 2002 (Humboldt Bay Report) 2002 Coast Guard Cove Def 40.7631 -124.2200
702898 Boyd et al. 2002 (Humboldt Bay Report) 2002 Bracut Def 40.8313 -124.0845
703023 Boyd et al. 2002 (Humboldt Bay Report) 2002 Samoa Bridge, East Def 40.8091 -124.1546
703095 Boyd et al. 2002 (Humboldt Bay Report) 2002 Samoa Boat Ramp Def 40.7722 -124.2124
703156 Boyd et al. 2002 (Humboldt Bay Report) 2002 Mad River Slough - Lanphere Christensen Dunes Bridge Def 40.8979 -124.1356
703603 Boyd et al. 2002 (Humboldt Bay Report) 2002 North Bay Oyster Beds Def 40.8230 -124.1257
757984 National Museum of Natural History Collections Database 1961 1961-08-28 Drakes Estero Def 38.0474 -122.9422
757985 National Museum of Natural History Collections Database 1961 1961-08-28 Humboldt Bay near Eureka Def 40.8225 -124.1464
757986 National Museum of Natural History Collections Database 1961 1961-09-20 Drakes Estero Def 38.0474 -122.9422
757987 National Museum of Natural History Collections Database 1961 1961-10-02 Drakes Bay Def 38.0186 -122.9319
757988 Katkansky and Warner 1968 1966 Humboldt Bay Def 40.7498 -124.2095
757989 Katkansky and Warner 1968 1967 Humboldt Bay Def 40.7498 -124.2095
757990 Katkansky and Warner 1968 1968 Humboldt Bay Def 40.7498 -124.2095
757991 Johnson and Chew 1969 1969 Humboldt Bay Def 40.7498 -124.2095
757992 Katkansky and Warner 1974, cited in Carlton 1979 1974 Tomales Bay Def 38.2100 -122.9400
757993 Katkansky and Warner 1974, cited in Carlton 1979 1974 Drakes Estero Def 38.0474 -122.9422
757994 Katkansky and Warner 1974, cited in Carlton 1979 1974 Elkhorn Slough Def 36.8086 -121.7856
757995 Katkansky and Warner 1974, cited in Carlton 1979 1974 Morro Bay Def 35.3378 -120.8513

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